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HARPER'S LANGUAGE- SERIES. 



SCHOOL COMPOSITION: 

BEING ADVANCED LANGUAGE - LESSONS 
FOB GEAMMAE SCHOOLS. 

Br Prof. WILLIAM SWINTON, A.M., 

AUTHOR OF " LANGUAGE-PRIMER, " LANGUAGE-LESSONS," 
" PROGRESSIVE GRAMMAR," ETO. 




NEW YORK: 4 

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN SQUAB E. 

1874. 



7*7 

[f7r 



By PROFESSOR SWINTON. 



LANGUAGE PRIMER. (I, i Press.) 
LANGUAGE LESSON'S. 176 pp., 50 cents. 
SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 120 pp., 50 cents. 
PROGRESSIVE ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 20S pp., 75 cents. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year iS74,by 

Harper & Brothers, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 



PEEFACE. 



This little book is in no respect an addition to the already 
large number of Rhetorics and other works on the theory and 
mysteries of style. It is strictly a manual for school work, and 
has been made with special reference to the rational remodel- 
ing recently accomplished, or now in the way of being accom- 
plished, in the Courses of Study in our public schools — a re- 
modeling in which Language-training for the first time receives 
*the attention that is its due. The writer trusts that inquiring 
teachers will find it in harmony with their views and aims. 

In the plan here adopted, composition is begun with the 
very commencement of the study, and is carried on pari passu 
with the development of rules and principles. It is a matter 
of common experience that children's power of producing, in 
an empirical way, is much in advance of their knowledge of 
the rationale of writing : hence, in the present work, pupils are 
not kept back from the improving exercise of actual composi- 
tion until they have mastered the complicated details of rhe- 
torical theory. It should be added, however, that the demands 
made on the scholar will not be found beyond his powers. He 
is provided with the material to work on, and his attention is 
limited to the process of building this material into shape — 
the author's conviction being that training in the Art of Ex- 
pression is as much as can wisely be aimed at in school com- 
position. Pupils must first be taught how to write at all, before 
they can be shown how to write well — a maxim that has never 
been out of mind in the making of this book. 

With this view the present manual has been divided into 
Five Parts : 

In Part I. the scholar is initiated into the construction and 
combination of sentences — under which head a great variety 
of practical exercises will be found. 

In Part II. it is sought to extend his resources of expression 



by accustoming him to vary both the structure and the phra- 
seology of sentences. 

Part III. is an application of the principles already learned 
to easy composition exercises from Outlines. 

In Part IV. what can advantageously be taught to boys and 
girls respecting Style is presented in a form which the author 
hopes will be found both fresh and fruitful. 

Part V. deals with the composition of Themes and Essays, 
on models adapted to a fair estimate of the pupil's capacity. 

It has seemed to the writer that there is room for a school 
manual of prose composition of medium size, arranged on a 
simple and natural plan, and designed, not to teach the theory 
of style and criticism, but to give school children between the 
ages of twelve and fifteen a fair mastery of the art of writing 
good English, for the ordinary uses of life. Such he has en- 
deavored to make the present book. 

William Bwirton. 



The acknowledgments of the author are especially due to the fol- 
lowing works : 

English Prose Comp)osilion, by James Currie. Edinburgh. 

Cornwall's Young Composer. Loudon. 

Balgleish 1 s English Composition. Edinburgh. 

Armstrong's English Composition. [The abstracts of Themes in Part 
V. are, in the main, an adaptation from this work.] 



CONTENTS. 



Chap. Pagb 

Introduction 1 

PART I. 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 

I. The Simple Sentence : 

1. Nature of the Simple Sentence 3 

2. Punctuation of the Simple Sentence 5 

3. Construction of Simple Sentences 7 

II. The Complex Sentences : 

1. Nature of the Complex Sentence 15 

2. Punctuation of the Complex Sentence 18 

3. Synthesis of Complex Sentences 19 

III. The Compound Sentence : 

1. Nature of Compound Sentences 2-1 

2. Contracted Compound Sentences 2G 

3. Punctuation of Compound Sentences 27 

4. Synthesis of Compound Sentences 28 

IV. Conversion op Sentences : 

1. Expansion SO 

2. Contraction 31 

V. Combination op Sentences 32 

PART II. 

VARIETY OP EXPRESSION. 

I. Variation in Arrangement and Structure 37 

II. Variation of Phraseology : 

1. By the Use of Synonyms 47 

2. By the Negation, or by the Affirmation of the Con- 

trary 51 

3. By Periphrasis, or Circumlocution 52 

1. By recasting the Sentence 52 



vi CONTENTS. 

PART III. 

SIMPLE COMPOSITION EXERCISES. 

Chap. Faci: 

Directions to Pupils : 

1. On Sentence-making 51- 

2. On the Choice of Words 51 

3. On Paragraphs 55 

I. Descriptive Subjects: 

Outlines 55 

II. Narrative Subjects : 

A. Letter-writing 56 

13. Newspaper Paragraphs GO 

C. Business Compositions CO 

PART IV. 

STYLE; OR, HOW TO WRITE GOOD ENGLISH. 

I. Choice of Words : 

Misused Words 07 

Examples of Redundancy GO 

Examples of Tautology 70 

Examples of Circumlocution 70 

II. Construction : 

1. Unity 71 

2. Clearness 71 

3. Strength 77 

III. Eigures of Language 80 

IV. Analysis of Style 82 

Review of Punctuation, Capitalizing, etc 88 

PART V. 

PRACTICAL COMPOSITION. 

Section I. Compositions 96 

Section II. Themes 100 

Section III. Essays 108 

Explanation of Terms 113 



SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 



INTRODUCTION. 



1. We are now to begin the most useful and most beautiful 
of all studies — the art of expressing our thoughts on paper, 
the art of writing good, clear, pleasing English. 

2. This art is called Composition. It treats of the construc- 
tion of sentences, and of the arrangement of sentences into a 
series, called a Theme. 

3. As all thoughts are expressed by means of sentences, the 
formation of sentences is the first step in composition. 

4. A thought may be expressed in different ways. So the 
sentence may be — 

(1.) Affirmative; as, Life is short. 

(2.) Negative ; as, Man shall not live by bread alone. 

(3.) Imperative ; as, Sound the loud timbrel. 

(4.) Interrogative ; as, Who saw the sun to-day? 

(5.) Exclamatory ; as, What a piece of work is man ! 

5. A sentence consists of two essential parts — Subject and 

PREDICATE. 

6. The Subject is that part of a sentence which names the 
thing spoken of; the Predicate, that which affirms something 
of the subject ; as, Little drojjs of water (subject) malce the 
mighty ocean (predicate). 

7. No collection of words is a sentence unless it contains 
both a subject and a predicate, and expresses a complete 
thought. 

8. A collection of words in a sentence containing a subject 
and a predicate, but not expressing a complete thought, is 
called a Clause ; as, When spring returned, the campaign was 
begun. 

9. A combination of words forming an element of a sen- 
tence, but not containing subject or predicate, is a Phrase. 

10. There are two main classes of phrases : 

(1.) The Prepositional phrase, introduced by a preposition. 
(2.) The Participial phrase, of which the key-word will al- 
ways be a participle. 

1 



SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 
Prepositional. Participial. 



Persons of a quarrelsome disposi 
tion are dangerous associates. 

Come into the garden, Maud. 

Beneath the lowest deep, a lower 
deep, still threatening to de- 
vour me, opens wide. 



The vessel, having encountered a 

storm, was completely wrecked. 
U?iaccustomed to obey, he could not 

command. 
Beneath the lowest deep, a lower 

deep, still threatening to devour 

mc, opens wide. 



Change the following expressions into full sentences: 

1. Two and two . 

2. Lead is many times as heavy . 

3. As soon as morning dawned . 

4. That all men should think alike on any subject . 

5. When Franklin's kite reached the thunder-cloud . 

6. The rain having continued without intermission during the 

night . 

11. Sentences are of three kinds: Simple, Complex, and 
Compound. 



' In beginning the work of composition- writing observe 
the following points : 

I. Terminal, Marks. Use a period (.) at the end of every com- 
plete statement ; a point of interrogation (?) at the end of a direct 
question; and a point of exclamation (!) at the end of every exclam- 
atory sentence. 

II. A Period is used after every abbreviated word : as, G. Wash- 
ington;" "C. O.D." 

III. A Period is used after a title or heading, and after an ad- 
dress, and a signature ; as, " Milton's Paradise Lost." " Chapter III." 
11 A. T. Stewart, Broadway, New York." 

IV. Capitals. A Capital letter should begin— 
(1.) The first word of every sentence. 

(2.) The first word of every line of poetry. 

(3.) The first word of every direct quotation. 

(4.) The first word after the introductory words ordered, voted, re- 
solved, etc. ; as, " Ordered, That this shall be entered on the miuutes." 

(5.) All proper nouns, and adjectives derived from them. 

(6.) Names of things used as persons. 

(7.) Names of the days of the week, and of the months of the year ; 
but not of the seasons. 

(8.) All words used as titles, or particular names. 

(9.) Names of the Supreme Being, and generally a personal pronoun 
that refers to Him. 

(10.) The pronoun I, the interjection 0, and single letters forming 
abbreviations should be oapitals. 



PART I. 

THE CONSTKUCTION OF SENTENCES. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

1. Nature of the Simple Sentence. 

12. A Simple Sentence consists of a single statement, and 
contains but one subject and one predicate ; as, Steam has 
changed the face of the world. 

13. A simple sentence can consist of only words or phrases; 
because, if a clause or another member were introduced, the sen- 
tence would contain more than one subject and predicate, and 
would, therefore, not be a simple sentence. 

14. A sentence may contain almost any number of ivords 
and phrases, and it will still be simple, provided it has but one 
thing spoken about (subject), and makes but one statement 
(predicate). 

15. Each of the following sentences is a simple sentence : 



1. Birds 

2. Some birds 

8. Some birds of prey 

4. Some birds of prey, having 

secured tbeir victim, 



fly swiftly, 
fly very swiftly. 

fly witb it very swiftly to their 
nests. 



*5j* In the first example, we have the simplest form of the simple 
sentence. It consists of the subject and predicate, without any mod- 
hying words or phrases. In the three sentences following, the sub- 
ject and the predicate are enlarged, or expanded, by the gradual ad- 
dition of certain particulars. The first sentence is a sort of skeleton ; 
in the succeeding sentences this skeleton becomes clothed with flesh. 
Each of these sentences is a simple sentence, because each contains 
but one subject and one predicate. 

16. Sentence 4 may be expressed thus : 

Some birds of prey, when they have secured their victim, fly with 
it very swiftly to their nests. 

*£* Keeping in mind that a simple sentence can contain but one 
subject and one predicate, we plainly see that this can not be a sim- 



4 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

pie sentence, for the reason that it contains two subjects and two 
predicates. The first subject is birds ; its predicate is fly. The sec- 
ond subject is they; its predicate is have secured. It is a complex 
sentence. In a complex sentence one or more of the statements or 
propositions hinges, or depends, on the other, called the principal 
proposition. 

PmNnpAT St \tfmfnt i Somc birds of P re ^ Q y with ' lt f tucir vic " 
PRINCIPAL STATEMENT. . . | ^ yery gwiftly to their nests> 

Subordinate Statement. .When they have secured their victim. 

Connective When. 

17. Let us now change Sentence 4 into still another form : 

Some birds of prey secure their victim, and then fly with it very 
swiftly to their nests. 

*#* In this form the sentence can not be simple, because it con- 
tains more than one subject and one predicate. And it can not be 
complex, because each of the members is independent. It is, there- 
fore, a Compound Sentence. 

Exercise 1. 

A. 

Supply appropriate subjects, so as to make complete Simple 
Sentences. 

Example. is the organ of sight. "The eye is the organ of 

sight." 

1. is the organ of sight. 

2. embalmed the bodies of their dead. 

supplies us with tea. 

is the most useful metal. 

indicates the approach of winter. 

(3. is called a limited monarchy. 

7. preached a fine sermon. 

8. were patriots. 

B. 

Supply appropriate predicates, so as to make complete Simple 
Sentences. 

Example.— General "Wolfe . General Wolfe fell, gallantly fight- 
ing, on the plains of Abraham. 

1. General Wolfe . 

2. Harnessed to a sledge, the reindeer . 

o. The British Parliament . 

4. The great circle dividing the earth into the Northern and South- 

ern hemispheres . 

5. Covered with wounds, the gallont soldier . 

G. On Christmas-eve of the year 1775, Washington, having resolved 
to attack the British . 

7. The art of printing . 

8. The vapor-laden clouds, striking high mountain peaks . 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 



Practical Exercise in Composing. 

Note. — It is intended that pupils shall begin the actual work of 
writing from the very outset, and that practice shall be carried 
on step by step with theory. 

Write a short composition from the following outline. Sub- 
ject — " The Camel." Underline the Simple Sentences. 

f Where found Dry countries of Asia and Africa. 

Description Size, hump, color, coat, hoof. 

Outline. . \ Habits Its food, drink, docility, etc. 

Uses For traveling— caravans— milk. How 

t adapted to desert countries ? 

1J2P 3 Exchange papers for criticism, asking the following 
questions: (1.) Is each sentence a simple sentence? (2.) Does 
the composition contain any errors in spelling ? (3.) In capi- 
talizing ? 



2. Punctuation of the Simple Sentence. 

13. Punctuation is the art of indicating, by means of points, 
"what elements of a sentence are to be conjoined, and what 
separated, in meaning. 

19. The points made use of for this purpose are : 

The Period 

The Comma 

The Semicolon 

The Colon 

The Dash - 

20. The occasional points — the use of which is sufficiently 
indicated by their names — are : 

The mark of Interrogation ? 

The mark of Exclamation ! 

Quotation marks " " 

Parentheses ( ) 

21. Genekal Rule. — In simple sentences the only points 
ever used are the terminal mark (period, mark of interrogation 
or mark of exclamation) and the comma. 

The following are the principal rules for punctuating sim- 
ple sentences : 

(1.) A simple sentence in which the parts are arranged in 
their natural order usually requires no comma ; as, (1.) His 
garden is gay with flowers. (2.) But I must introduce my read- 
ers to the inside of a New England cottage. 

(2.) Co-ordinate words are separated from each other by 



6 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

commas, except when they are only two in number, and joined 
by a conjunction ; as, (1.) This calm, cool, resolute man pre- 
sented a noble example of daring. (2.) This cool and resolute 
man presented, etc. 

(3.) An appositional expression is generally marked off by 
a comma ; or, if parenthetical, by two commas ; as, (1.) At 
Zama the Romans defeated Hannibal, perhaps the greatest gen- 
eral of antiquity. (2.) Hannibal, perhaps the greatest general 
of antiquity, icas defeated by the Romans at Zama. 

(4.) An adjective phrase is marked off by a comma ; or, if 
parenthetical, by two ; as, (1.) Having completed their arrange- 
ments for the work of the morrow, they retired to snatch a few 
hours' 1 repose. (2.) The Indian monarch, stunned and beicildered, 
saw his faithful subjects falling around him. But if the phrase 
is restrictive, no comma is required ; as, A city set on a hill can 
not be hid. 

(5.) Adverbial phrases on which any stress is laid, either by 
transposition or otherwise, and adverbs having the force of 
phrases (however, therefore, indeed, etc.), are separated from the 
rest of the sentence by commas; as, (1.) In spite of all difficul- 
ties, they resolved to make the attempt. They resolved, in spite 
of all difficulties, to make the attempt. (2.) In truth. I aim 
wearied of his importunities. I am, in truth, icearied of his im- 
portunities. (3.) The signal being given, the feet weighed anchor. 

(6.) Adverbs and adverbial phrases occurring in their nat- 
ural place in a sentence, and without any stress being laid on 
them, are not marked off by commas; as, (1.) The judge there- 
fore ordered his release. (2.) They proceeded with all due cau- 
tion to examine the premises. 

(7.) A succession of co-ordinate phrases is separated by 
commas; as, (1.) Our house is beautifully situated about three 
miles from town, close by the road. (2.) At day-break, the com- 
bined fleets were distinctly seen from the Victory's deck, formed 
in a close line of battle ahead, about twelve miles to leeward, and 
standing to the south. 

(8.) The noun of address i3 marked off by a comma, or by 
commas; as, (1.) My son, forget not my law. (2.) Tell me, my 
friend, cdl the circumstances. 

Exercise 2. 

A. 

Point the following Simple Sentences : 

1. Franklin was blessed with a sound understanding an intrepid 
spirit a benevolent heart. 

2. Mr. Speaker I rise to move the second reading of this bill. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 7 

3. Goldsmith the author of the "Deserted Village" wrote with 
perfect elegance and beauty. 

4. I returned slowly home my head a little fatigued hut my heart 
content. 

5. In 1799 having previously returned to Mount Vernon Washing- 
ton was gathered to his fathers. 

G. Nevertheless strange stories got abroad. 

7. Oar dear friend the general in his last letter mortified me not 
a little. 

8. He was reserved and proud haughty and ambitious. 

9. She was moreover full of truth kindness and good-nature. 

10. In carrying a barometer from the level of the Thames to the 
top of St. Paul's Church in London the mercury falls about half an 
inch marking an ascent of about five hundred feet. 



Practical Exercise in Composing. 

Composition feom Outline. 

Write a composition of not less than ten sentences on the subject 
of " Trees." 

f 1. State the division of trees into forest and fruit trees, 
and tell the difference between these two kinds. 

2. Name the various kinds of forest-trees growing in 
your part of the country. 

3. Name the various kinds of fruit-trees cultivated in 
Outlines . . ■{ your part of the country. 

4. "What is a forest ? an orchard ? 

5. What is lumber ? timber ? 

6. Tell the various uses of wood. 

7. Mention important trees in different parts of the 
world, and state what people get from'them. 

$W When the compositions are written, the pupils should 
exchange papers, and criticise as before, asking the following 
questions : 

(1.) Does each sentence begin with a capital and end with a period ? 
(2.) Are there any errors of spelling ? 
(3.) Are there any errors of grammar? 
(4.)»Can any improvements be made ? 

Teacher's Note.— One or more of the compositions may be 
placed on the blackboard for class criticism. 



3. Construction of Simple Sentences. 

22. It is a very pleasant and profitable exercise to weave 
together a number of separate statements into a well-con- 
structed simple sentence. The following is an exemplification 
of the mode of doing this : 



SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 



Example 1. 



Separate Statements. - 



'1. Sbakspeare was born at Stratford-on- 

Avon. 
2. Sbakspeare was a dramatist, 
o. He was an English dramatist. 

4. He was a great dramatist. 

5. He was born in tbe year 1564. 

6. He was born during tbe reign of Queen 
Elizabetb. 

f "In tbe year 15G4, during tbe reign of 
Wovt-n TnfiFTTTFR J Queen Elizabetb, Sbakspeare, a great 

WOVEN together < Englisb dramatist, was born at Strat- 

[ ford-on- Avon." 

23. Explanation. — The scholar -will notice that in the con- 
structed sentence all the elements contained in each of the 
se]3arate statements are woven together into one whole. 

Statement 1 is the principal statement, or skeleton sentence 
— " Shakspeare was born at Stratford-on-Avon." 

Statement 2 contributes to the constructed sentence a single 
word — the term "dramatist.!' It is placed in juxtaposition 
with the subject, SJialspeare, and in apposition with it. 

Statement 3 furnishes also a single word — " English," which 
we join as a qualifier to " dramatist." 

Statement 4 adds the epithet " great." 

Statement 5 appears in the form of a phrase, " in the year 
1564," which we insert as a modifier of the predicate was lorn. 

Statement 6 is condensed into another phrase — " during the 
reign of Queen Elizabeth." 

Example 2. 

f There lay floating on tbe ocean an im- 
mense irregular mass. 
J This mass was several miles off. 
j Its top and points were covered with 
I snow. 
L Its centre was of a deep indigo color. 

r " Several miles off, tbcre lay floating on 
Wnvpv thpftttfr J tne occan an immense irregular mass, 

\V OVEN .OGETHER . ^^ and points (>overed w j th snQ ^ 

{ and its centre of a deep indigo color." 

24. The separation of a simple sentence into the different 
statements that are implied in it is called Analysis. It is the 
opposite of Synthesis. 



Logwood, one of the most common dye-stuffs, is tbe substance of 
a tree found in Campeacby Bay and tbe West Indies. 



Separate Statements. 



12. 

"IS 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

1. Logwood is the substance of a tree. 

2. Logwood is one of the most common dye-stuffs. 
° The tree is found in Campeachy Bay. 

The tree is found in the West Indies. 



^£W~ Analyze the following Simple Sentences : 

1. The animal kingdom is arranged into four great divisions, called 
sub-kingdoms. 

2. The silk-worm's web is an oval ball, called a cocoon, consisting 
of a single thread wound round and round. 

3. Gessler, to try the temper of the Swiss, set up the ducal hat of 
Austria on a pole in the market-place of Altdorf. 

*£* In the following exercise a number of circumstances are stated 
separately, which the pupil must combine into one simple sentence. 
The subject and the predicate are in every case contained in the first 
sentence of the group of constituent elements ; of the others just so 
much is to be retained as is necessary to establish a correct and clear 
connection. 

Exercise 3. 

Combine the following statements into Simple Sentences : 

1. The electric telegraph has greatly facilitated business. 

It has done so by bringing distant parts of the world into in- 
stant communication. 
The electric telegraph was invented by Professor Morse. 
Professor Morse was an American. 

2. The next morning the battle began in terrible earnest. 
The next morning was the 24th of June. 

The battle began at day-break. 

3. Columbus returned to Spain in 1493. 

He had spent some months in exploring the delightful regions. 

These regions had long been dreamed of by many. 

These regions were now first thrown open to European eyes. 

4. I received a letter. 

It was a cheerful letter. 

It was a hopeful letter. 

It was full of lively descriptions of camp life. 

It was full of lively descriptions of marches. 

It was full of lively descriptions of battles. 

25. It is quite probable that the scholar, in weaving to- 
gether the statements into sentences, may have constructed 
some other kind of sentence than the simple sentence. Re- 
member, 

(1.) That a simple sentence can consist of only words and 
phrases. 

(2.) That if a sentence contains more than one finite verb, it 
is not a simple sentence. 

Note.— A Finite Verb is a verb in any other mood than the In- 
finitive. 

1* 



10 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

26. A pupil, in combining the statements of Group 1, in the 
last exercise, constructed the following sentence : 

"The electric telegraph, -which was invented by Professor Morse, 
an American, lias greatly facilitated business, by bringing distant 
parts of the world into instant communication." 

Explanation. — This is not a simple sentence, because it has 
two finite verbs — " was invented," and " has facilitated." The 
words " which was invented by Professor Morse, an American," 
form a clause, the connective being the relative pronoun ichich, 
and the whole is a complex sentence. The manner of making 
it a simple sentence is to reduce the clause to a phrase. This 
is done by omitting the connective and turning the finite verb 
into a participle, thus : 

Clause : " Which was invented by Professor Morse." 
Phrase : " Invented by Professor Morse." 

Making this change, we have the following simple sen- 
tence : 

"The electric telegraph, invented by Professor Morse, an Ameri- 
can, has greatly facilitated business, by bringing distant parts of the 
world into instant communication." 

27. The following wrong combinations of Sentence 3 were 
made : 

1. "Columbus returned to Spain in 1493, having spent some 
months in exploring the delightful regions which had long been 
dreamed of by many, and were now first thrown open to European 
eyes." 

Explanation. — This is not a simple sentence, because it 
contains more than one finite verb : it is a complex sentence, 
because, in addition to one principal statement, it has two de- 
pendent statements (clauses). 

2. " Columbus spent some months in exploring the delightful re- 
gions long dreamed of by many, and now first thrown open to Euro- 
pean eyes, and he returned in 1493." 

Explanation. — This is a compound sentence, because it has 
two independent statements. Besides, it does not put the mat- 
ter in the right way. The principal statement is contained in 
the first proposition — " Columbus returned to Spain in 1493 ;" 
all the other circumstances are to be brought in as adjuncts of 
that. The correct form of the sentence is : 

" Columbus returned to Spain in 1493, having spent [or after send- 
ing] some months in exploring the delightful regions long dreamed 
of by many, and now first thrown open to European eyes ;" or, "Hav- 
ing spent some months in exploring the delightful regions long 
dreamed of by many, and now first thrown open to European eyes, 
Columbus in 1493 returned to Spain." 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 11 



Exercise 4. 

Combine the folloioing groups of statements, each into a single 
Simple Sentence. $W* Be very careful that it is a Simple 
Sentence. 

1. Alexander saw himself lord of all Western Asia. 
He saw himself such at the age of twenty-five. 
He had defeated the Persians. 

They were defeated in the great battles of Issus, Granicus, and 
Arbela. 

2. The Romans heard of the fertile island called Britain. 

The Romans were then the most powerful people in the world. 
The Romans were then the most civilized people in the world. 
They had conquered Gaul, or France. 
Britain lay on the other side of the sea to the north-west, 

3. We diverged toward the prairie. 
We left the line of march. 

We traversed a small valley. 

4. Peter III. reigned but a few months. 

Peter was deposed by a conspiracy of Russian nobles. 
This conspiracy was headed by his own wife Catherine. 
Catherine was a German by birth. 
Catherine was a woman of bold and unscrupulous character. 

28. "When a simple sentence contains modifying phrases, a 
variety of changes in the arrangement of its parts may be 
made. Thus the sentence, 

"The blooming maiden went out early in the morning, with light 
steps, into the garden," 

may be arranged in several ways. Thus : 

1. Early in the morning the blooming maiden went out, with light 
step, into the garden. 

2. With light step the blooming maiden went out into the garden 
early in the morning. 

3. The blooming maiden went out, with light step, into the garden 
early in the morning. 

4. The blooming maiden, with light step, went out into the garden 
early in the morning. 

5. The blooming maiden went out into the garden early in the 
morning with light step. 

6. Out into the garden, with light step, went the blooming maiden 
early in the morning. 

*#* This by no means exhausts the number of changes that may 
be made in the arrangement. 

29. The particular place that any phrase should occupy 
will generally depend on the sense intended ; hence phrases 
should usually be placed beside the parts of the sentence they 
are designed to modify. 

30. Adverbial phrases, however, may readily be placed in 



12 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

any part of the sentence, and taste is to be exercised in putting 
such phrases in the best place — where they will fit in most 
neatly. 

31. Practical Direction. — When a sentence contains a 
number of phrases, do not group them together in any one part — 
as at the beginning, or the e*d, or in the middle — but distribute 
them in such a way that the sentence shall be agreeable to the ear. 

Illustration. 

"We were becalmed for two weeks in the PaciQc in a ship almost 
destitute of provisions." 

The three phrases in this sentence are placed together after 
the verb. If we take the adverbial phrase, " for two weeks," 
and use it to introduce the sentence, the statement will be 
much more neatly expressed. Thus : 

"For two weeks we were becalmed in the Pacific, in a ship almost 
destitute of provisions;" or, "We were, for two weeks, becalmed," 
etc. 

32. As another illustration, take one of the sentences we 
have already had : " Columbus returned to Spain in 1493, hav- 
ing spent some months in exploring the delightful regions 
long dreamed of by many, and now first thrown open to Euro- 
pean eyes." 

We might vary the structure thus : 

In 1493 Columbus returned to Spain, having spent, etc. ; or, 
Columbus in 1493 returned to Spain, having spent, etc. ; or, 
Columbus, having spent some months in exploring the delightful 
regions long dreamed of by many, but now first thrown open to Eu- 
ropean eyes, returned to Spain in 1493. 

33. When you have varied the expression of such sentences, 
ask yourself, 

Which construction is most clear ? 
W T hich is most neat ? 
Which is most harmonious? 

Exercise 5. 

Combine the following groups of statements each into Simple 
Sentences. Try the sentence in various orders, and till which 
construction you prefer, and why: • 

1 . The president called a meeting. 
It was a meeting of his cabinet. 
The meeting was called suddenly. 
It was called late at night. 

It was at the suggestion of Adams it was called. 
The purpose of its calling was to deliberate on the relations 
with France. 



THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 13 

2. The Romans defeated Hannibal. 

He was perhaps the greatest general of antiquity. 
It was at Zama they defeated him. 

3. I went on a vacation trip to the country. 
It was at the close of last term I went. 

I was tired out with hard study. 

4. "We came to a spacious mansion of freestone. 
The mansion was built in the Grecian style. 
We did so after riding a short distance. 

5. A fine lawn sloped away from the mansion. 
This lawn was studded with clumps of trees. 

These clumps were so disposed as to break a soft fertile coun- 
try into a variety of landscapes. 

6. Glue is made of refuse horses 1 hoofs, parings of hides, and other 

similar materials. 
These are boiled down to a thick jelly. 
The thick jelly is repeatedly strained. 
This is done so as to free it from all impurities. 

7. In China there are a great many tea-farms. 
These are generally of small extent. 
They are situated in the upper valleys. 

They are situated on the sloping sides of the hills. 

8. Heavy articles were generally conveyed from place to place by 

stage-wagons. 
They were thus conveyed on the best highways. 
This was the case in the time of Charles the Second. 

9. Bruce sent two commanders. 

The war between the English and Scotch still lasted. 

He sent the good Lord James Douglas. 

He also sent Thomas Randolph, earl of Moray. 

These men were great commanders. 

They were to lay waste the counties of Northumberland and 

Durham. 
They were to distress the English. 

10. Sugar is a sweet crystallized substance. 

It is obtained from the juice of the sugar-cane. 

The sugar-cane is a reed-like plant, growing in most hot climates. 

It is supposed to be originally a native of the East. 

11. Alexander became a man. 
He became a strong man. 
He became an effectual man. 

He became a man able to take care of himself and of his king- 
dom too. 
He became all this in due time. 

12. Coral is a secretion from the body of an animal. 
This animal is very low in the scale of creation. 
It is called a polyp. 

13. Goldsmith was vain. 
He was sensual. 

He was frivolous. 



14 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

He was profuse. 

He was improvident. 

All this he was according to Macaulay. 

14. The clustered spires of Frederick stand. 

They stand up from the meadows rich with corn. 
They stand clear in the cool September morn. 
Frederick is green-walled by the hills of Maryland. 

B. 

Transpose the phrases in the following sentences icithout alter- 
ing the sense : 

1. That morning he had laid his books as usual on his desk in the 
school-room. 

2. At the dawn of day she ascended the hill with a merry heart, in 
company with her brother. 

3. Swallows in the autumn migrate into warmer climates. 

4. He reads every morning alter breakfast regularly ten pages of 
Cicero. 

5. What, sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to the hu- 
man soul. 



Practical Exercise in Composing. 

Write a composition from the following outlines : 

MY NATIVE TOWN. 

1. Where it is.— In what country and state— on what river, or 

near what noted natural object : ocean, lake, river, mountain, 
etc. Is it a great city ? If not, how far, and in what direc- 
tion, is it from a large city? 

2. Size.— Number of inhabitants— Is it increasing in size, or sta- 

tionary ? What makes it grow ? What makes it remain sta- 
tionary ? 

3. Connections with other places — Steamers — Railroads. How 

long have the railroads been built ? What new lines are build- 
ing? 

4. Streets. — Which are the principal ones ? Name and locate the 

public buildings— colleges, schools, churches, banks, hotels, 
etc. 

5. Occupations of the inhabitants. What leading industry, if any, 

is pursued ? Way iu which most of the people gain a liveli- 
hood. 
C. Surrounding Scenery. —Description of fine views — forest, 
mountain, river. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 15 



CHAPTER II. 

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 

1. Nature of Complex Sentences. 

34. A Complex Sentence is a sentence in which two or 
more simple statements are combined, so that one is principal, 
and one or more are subordinate. 

35. The dependent, or subordinate statements, are called 
Clauses. 

36. There are three kinds of clauses : 

1. Adjective Clause. 2. Adverbial Clause. 
3. Noun Clause. 

37. An Adjective clause is equivalent to an adjective, and 
limits nouns just as adjectives do. It is generally joined to 
the principal statement by the relative pronouns who, which, 
that, or by relative adverbs, as ichere, when, why. 

Illustrations. 

1. The poet that [or icho] wrote " Paradise Lost," sold it for 
five pounds. 

Explanation. — That wrote "Paradise Lost," is an adjective clause, 
connected with the principal statement, the poet sold it for five 
pounds, by means of the relative that [or who']. The clause limits the 
subject poet. 

2. De Soto discovered a great river, which the Indians named 
Mesa-seba. 

Explanation. — Which the Indians named, etc., is an adjective 
clause, introduced by which, and limiting the object river. 

3. She is far from the land ichere her young hero sleeps. 

Explanation. — Where her young hero sleeps, is an adjective clause, 
introduced by the relative adverb where, and limiting the noun land. 

4. Avenge, O Lord, thy slaughtered saints, whose bones 
Lie scattered on the Alpine mountains cold; 

Even them who Jcept thy truth of old. 

Explanation.— Whose bones, etc., is an adjective clause, limiting 
the noun saints. Who kcjit, etc., is an adjective clause, limiting the 
pronoun them. 



Adverbial 
Clause of 



10 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

^P Complete the following Complex Sentences by supply- 
ing adjective clauses: 

1. Chemistry is the science . 

2. The whale is the largest of all the animals . 

o. The reason is because the earth turns on its axis. 

4. We saw the spot . 

5. The soul is dead . 

6. The day will come . 

38. An Adverbial clause is a clause which is equivalent to an 
adverb. It limits a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, and de- 
notes the various circumstances of place, time, cause, degree, 
manner, consequence, etc. It is joined to the principal state- 
ment by a subordinate conjunction, or by a relative adverb. 

Reference Table of Adverbial Clause Connectives. 

I. Place Where, whither, whence. 

II. Time When, while, whenever, till, until. 

( 1. Likeness— as, as if. 
III. Manner. ■< 2. Comparison— as (much) as, than. 
I 3. Effect— (so) that, 
r 1. Reason — because, since, for. 
TV n re J 3 - Purpose— (in order) that, lest 
iv. ^ause.... - 3 Condition— if, unless. 
[ 4. Concession— though. 

Illusteations. 

1. When Columbus hadfnished speaking, the sovereigns sank 
upon their knees. 

Explanation. — When Columbus, etc., is an adverbial clause of 
time, introduced by the relative adverb ichen, and limiting the princi- 
pal predicate, sank on their knees. 

2. If you wish to be well, you must live temperately. 

Explanation. — If you wish, etc., is an adverbial clause (condition), 
introduced by the subordinate conjunction if. 

3. Fools rush in ichere angels fear to tread. 

Explanation. — Where angeh, etc., is an adverbial clause (place), 
introduced by the relative adverb u-lare. 

4. The ostrich is unable to fly, because it has not icings in 
proportion to its body. 

Explanation. — Because it has, etc., is an adverbial clause (reason), 
introduced by the subordinate conjunction because. 

5. A bird flies swifter than a horse can run. 

Explanation. — Than a horse, etc., is an adverbial clause (compari- 
son), introduced by the subordinate conjunction than. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 17 

' Complete the following Complex Sentences oy supply- 
ing adverbial clauses : 

1. We must gain a character for truthfulness and diligence if . 

2. The pursuit did not cease till . 

3. The example of one she loved had more influence with her 
than . 

4. Though the Laplanders keep themselves warm in their 

snow huts. 

5. The ground is never frozen in Palestine, as . 

6. (time) Washington retired to Mount Vernon. 

7. The camel is called the "ship of the desert," (cause) . 

8. an eclipse is produced. 

39. The Noun clause is a clause that is equivalent to a noun ; 
hence it may "be subject or object of a complex sentence. It 
is generally introduced by the interrogative pronouns who or 
what, or by a relative adverb, or by a subordinate conjunction. 

Illustrations. 

1. When letters first came into use is uncertain. [Noun clause, sub- 
ject of is.] 

2. Socrates proved that virtue is its own reward. [Noun clause, object 
of proved.] 

3. Tell me not in mournful numbers 
"Life is but an empty dream.'''' 

[Noun clause, the introductory conjunction that being understood : 
object of tell.] 

HP* Complete the following Complex Sentences by supply- 
ing noun clauses : 

1. It is very amusing to watch the spider and see . 

2. Every child knows . 

3. We can not tell . 

4. Look at the elephant : did you ever wonder ? 

5. has long been accepted as one of the fundamental truths of 

astronomy. 

6. As was foreseen, the judge decided . 



• Practical Exercise in Composing. 

Read aloud the following piece, and make an abstract from 
memory. fiST* Underline any Complex Sentences that you 
may write. 

PLEASANT REWARD OF CANDOR. 

A certain Spanish duke having obtained leave of the King of Spain 
to release some galley-slaves, went on board the galley at Barcelona, 
where the prisoners were chained at their work. Passing throiurh 
the benches of slaves at the oar, he asked several of them what their 



18 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

offenses were. All excused themselves— one saying that he -was pnt 
there out of malice, another by the bribery of a judge ; but all unjust- 
ly. Among the rest was a sturdy little fellow, whom the duke asked 
what he was there for. "Sir," said he, "I can not deny that I am 
justly sent here; for I wanted money, and so I took a purse upon 
the highway to keep me from starving." When he heard this, the 
duke, with a little stick he had in his hand, gave the man two or 
three little blows on the shoulders, saying, "You rogue, what arc 
you doing among so many honest men ? Get you gone out of their 
company?' So he was freed, and the rest of the gang remained there 
still to tug at the oar. 

Exchange papers for correction. 



2. Punctuation of the Complex Sentence. 

40. The following are the principal rules for punctuating 
complex sentences : 

(1.) The rules for simple sentences apply to the grand di- 
visions of a complex sentence, that is, to the principal member 
and to the subordinate clauses. 

(2.) A short and closely dependent clause is not separated 
from the principal proposition ; as, (a.) Be ready when I give 
the signal, (b.) It is a wellrknown fact that the earth, is nearly 
round. 

(3.) Adverbial clauses, especially when they introduce a 
proposition, are generally marked off by the comma ; as, (a.) 
While the world lasts, fashion will continue to lead it by the 
nose, (b.) As my heart was entirely subdued by the captivating 
strains I had heard, I fell down at his feet. 

(4.) Adjective clauses are marked off from their principals 
by commas, except when they are restrictive.' as, (a.) Frank- 
lin, who became a great statesman and philosopher, was in youth 
a poor printer 's boy. (b.) The friar pointed to the book that he 
held, as his authority. 

(5.) Parenthetical clauses are to be marked off by commas ; 
as, The project, it is certain, will succeed. 

(G.) When the grand divisions are long, and the parts arc 
separated by commas, the semicolon may be used to divide 
the grand divisions; as,When snow accumulates on the ground 
in winter, it is useful in keeping the earth at a moderate degree 
of cold ; for, where the snow lies, tlie temperature of the ground 
beneath seldom descends below the freezing point. 

(7.) A formal quotation is inclosed in quotation -marls, and 
preceded by a colon; as, His defense is: "To be robbed, vio- 
lated, oppressed, is their privilege." When the quotation 
forms a part of the narrative, it may be preceded by a comma ; 
as, To a tribune who insulted him, he replied, " I am still your 
emperor." 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 19 



Exercise 6. 

Point the following Complex Sentences : 

1. As we were the first that came into the house so we were the 
last that went out of it being resolved to have a clear passage for 
our old friend whom we did not care to venture among the jostling 
of the crowd. 

2. Thousands whom indolence has sunk into contemptible obscu- 
rity might have attained the highest distinctions if idleness had not 
frustrated the effect of all their powers. 

3. Forbes in his Oriental Memoirs when speaking of the age of 
such trees states that he smoked his hookah under the very banian 
beneath which part of Alexander's cavalry took shelter. 

4. The horse tired with his journey was led into the stable. 

5. Though deep yet clear though gentle yet not dull 
Strong without rage without o'erflowing full. 

3. Synthesis of Complex Sentences. 

41. Two or more statements may be put together into one 
complex sentence, by making one statement the leading, or 
principal, proposition, and the other statement, or statements, 
dependent upon it. 

Example 1. 

( 1. Coffee was unknown in this country a 
Separate Statements . ■< few centuries ago. 

( 2. It is now in general use as a beverage. 

I Coffee which is now in general use as a 

Combined < beverage was unknown in this country 

( a few centuries ago. 

Explanation. — The sentence might have been put together in 
this way: "Coffee was unknown in this country a few centuries 
ago ; but it is now in general use as a beverage." This is a perfectly 
proper sentence, but it is compound, not complex. It is compound, 
because it contains two independent propositions. 

Example 2. 

I Along the La Plata are extensive plains. 
They are covered with grass. 
These plains are called pampas. 
Great herds of cattle roam over these 
pampas. 
Great herds of horses roam over them. 

( Along the La Plata are extensive grass- 

PnAT-nTXTT-T. J covered plains called pampas, over 
uombin^d wh . ch roam vast herdg Qf cattlc aml 

[ horses. 

42. The separation of a complex sentence into the different 
propositions of which it is composed is called Analysis. 



20 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 



Example. 



The elephant, "which in size and strength surpasses all other land 
animals, is a native both of Asia and Africa. 

f 1. The elephant surpasses all other land animals in 
size. 
■ T1TVt!T£! J 2. The elephant surpasses all other land animals in 
Analysis... . strength. 

3. The elephant is a native of Asia. 
[4. The elephant is a native of Africa. 

%W~ Separate the folloicing Complex Sentences into the 
cliff event propositions they contain: 

1. Animals of the eat kind are distinguished chiefly by their sharp 
claws, which they can hide or extend at pleasure. 

2. The plant samphire always grows in certain places on the sea- 
shore, which are never covered by the sea. 

3. As they approached the coast, they saw it covered with a mul- 
titude of people whom the novelty of the spectacle had drawn to- 
gether, whose attitudes and gestures expressed wonder and aston- 
ishment at the strange objects which presented themselves to their 
view. 

43. Variety in the arrangement of complex sentences is ob- 
tained in the same manner as in simple (by changing the posi- 
tion of phrases), and also by changing the position of clauses. 

Illustration 

An old clock that had stood for fifty years in a farmer's kitchen, 
without giving its owner any cause of complaint, early one summer 
morning, before the family was stirring, suddenly stopped. 

This may be varied thus : 

1. An old clock that had stood for fifty years in a farmer's kitchen, 
without giving its owner any cause of complaint, suddenly stopped 
early one summer morning before the family was stirring. 

2. Early one summer morning, before the family was' stirring, an 
old clock that had stood for fifty years in a farmer's kitchen with- 
out giving its owner any cause of complaint, suddenly stopped. 



1 Change the position of the clauses and phrases in the fol- 
lowing sentences in at least three different ways, icithout filtering 
the construction or destroying the sense : 

1. I shall never consent to such proposals while I live. 

2. Augustus, while he was at Samos, after the famous battle of 
Actium, which made him master of the world, held a council, in or- 
der to try the prisoners who had been engaged in Antony's party. 

3. A scene of woe then ensued the like of which no eye had seen. 

44. In combining a number of given elements into a com- 
plex sentence, the pupil may be guided by the following con- 
siderations : 

(1.) Consider carefully the nature of the assertion in each 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 21 

of the constituent elements (statements) with the view of de- 
termining its connection with the main statement, which will 
always come first. 

(2.) A subordinate statement (clause) should be placed be- 
side the statement containing the word which it qualifies, or 
to which it has a grammatical relation. 

(3.) An adjective clause follows the noun which it qualifies; 
an adverbial clause generally follows the word which it quali- 
fies ; but a clause denoting place, time, cause, condition, con- 
cession, may precede it. 

Exercise 7. 

Combine each group of statements into one Complex Sen- 
tence. t^lF" In each case the principal statement comes first. 

*** It is not necessary that all the statements be turned into 
clauses ; some of them may, with greater clearness, be rendered in 
the complex sentence as phrases. 

1. The Spaniards were surrounded by many of the natives. 

The Spaniards were thus employed. [Clause of time, beginning 
with tohile, and introducing the sentence.] 

The natives gazed with silent admiration upon their actions. 
[Adjective clause.] 

They could not comprehend these actions. [Adjective clause, 
adjunct to actions.] 

They did not foresee the consequences of these actions. [Ad- 
jective clause, adjunct to actions, connected by and to preced- 
ing clause.] 

2. Alexandria is situated on the shores of the Mediterranean. 

It was one of the most celebrated cities of antiquity. [Adjec- 
tive clause, adjunct to Alexandria.] 

It was formerly the residence of the kings of Eg} r pt. [Adjective 
clause, adjunct to Alexandria.] 

3. In the Olympic games, the only reward was a wreath composed 

of wild olives. 

The Olympic games were regarded as the most honorable. [Ad- 
jective clause, adjunct to games.] 

They were so regarded, because sacred to Jupiter. [Phrase of 
reason, adjunct to honorable.] 

They were so regarded, also, because instituted by the early 
Greek heroes. [Phrase of reason, adjunct to honorable.] 

4. Napoleon made his son King of Rome. 

He did this after he had divorced Josephine. [Adverbial clause 
of time.] 

He did this after he had espoused Maria Louisa. [Adverbial 
clause of time.] 

Maria Louisa was daughter of the Emperor of Austria. [Adjec- 
tive clause, adjunct to Maria Louisa.] 

5. Augustus held a council in order to try certain prisoners. 
This was while he was at Samos. [Adverbial clause of time.] 



22 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

It was after the famous battle of Actiurn. [Adverbial clause of 
time.] 

This battle made him master of the world. [Adjective clause, 
adjunct of battle ofActium.] 

The prisoners tried were those who had been engaged in An- 
tony's party. [Adjective clause, adjunct of prisoners.] 

6. Columbus saw at a distance a light. 

This was about two hours before midnight. [Adverbial plmso 

of time.] 
Columbus was standing on the forecastle. [Participial phrase, 

adjunct to Columbus.] 
He pointed the light out to Pedro. [Adjective clause, adjunct 

to light.] 
Pedro was a page of the queen's wardrobe. [Noun phrase, in 

apposition with Pedro.] 

7. The man succeeded in reaching the bank. 

The man fell into the river. [Adjective clause, adjunct of sub- 
ject.] 
Assistance arrived. [Participial phrase.] 

8. Caesar might not have been murdered. 

Suppose Caesar had taken the advice of the friend. [Adverbial 

clause of condition (if).] 
The friend warned him not to go to the Senate-house on the 

Ides of March. [Adjective clause, adjunct of friend.] 

9. That valor lingered only among pirates and robbers. 

This valor had won the great battle of human civilization. [Ad- 
jective clause, adjunct to valor.] 
It had saved Europe. [Adjective clause, adjunct to valor.] 
It had subjugated Asia. [Adjective clause, adjunct to valor.] 

10. There will be a camp-meeting. 

It is to commence tbe last Monday of this month. 

It is to be at the Double-spring Grove. 

This grove is near Peter Brinton's. 

Peter Brinton's is in the county of Shelby. 

11. My friend Sir Roger has often told me, with a great deal of 

mirth. 
He found three parts of his house altogether useless. [Noun 

clause, object of told.] 
He came to his estate. [Adverbial clause, time.] 
The best room in it had the reputation of being haunted. [Noun 

clause, object of told.] 
It was locked up. 
Noises had been heard in his long gallery. [Noun clause, object 

of told.] 
He could not get a servant to enter it after eight o'clock at 

night. 
The door of one of his chambers was nailed up. [Noun clause, 

object of told.] 
A story went in the family. [Adverbial clause, cause.] 
A butler had formerly hanged himself in it. 
His mother had shut up half the rooms in the house. 
His mother had lived to a great age. 
In the room either her husband, a son, or a daughter had died. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 23 

Practical Exercise in Composing. 

Write a composition from the following outlines: 

OUR THREE GREATEST AMERICAN INVENTIONS. 

1. The Cotton-gin. 

(a.) Invented by Eli Whitney : state (if you can find out) when 

it was invented. 
(&.) Its utility — for what it is used — effect in increasing the 

cultivation of cotton— effect on the growth of slavery. 

2. The Steamboat. 

(a.) Invented by Robert Fulton : do you know any thing about 
him ? Name of the first steamer made in this country, the 
Clermont; to what place did it run? When was the first trip 
made? 

(5.) What has grown out of this first experiment? Speak of 
the great number of large steamers now found on all the wa- 
ters of the world. 

3. The Telegraph. 

(a.) Invented by Professor Morse. Is he now alive ? The first 

line was constructed between Baltimore and Washington. 

In what year was this ? 
(&.) Progress of the telegraph— immense number of lines now 

constructed— mention in what countries— the Atlantic cable, 
(c.) Utility of the telegraph: its effect on every-day life — on 

business— on our knowledge of what is going on all over the 

world. 

ISir 3 Exchange papers, and correct with reference to — 

1. Spelling, capitals, and grammar. 

2. The arrangement of the phrases in all the sentences. 

3. The arrangement of the clauses in the complex sentences. 



24 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 



CHAPTER III. 

TIIE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

1. Nature cf Compound Sentences. 

45. A Compound Sentence consists of two or more separate 
statements that are joined together in such a way as to be of 
equal importance. 

46. The joining together of the separate statements of a 
compound sentence is effected by means of conjunctions; and 
the nature of the connection depends on the kind of conjunc- 
tion used. 

47. There are three kinds of conjunctions : 

1. Conjunctions of the AND-type. 

2. Conjunctions of the BuT-type. 

3. Conjunctions of the IlENCE-type. 

Illustrations. 

1. "The rains descended and the floods came." [Two statements 
joined into a compound sentence by and.] 

2. "The commander was unwilling to surrender; but the garrison 
compelled him to do so." [Two statements connected into a com- 
pound sentence by but.] 

3. "Pittsburgh is in the centre of a rich coal region; hence it is a 
great manufacturing city." [Two statements joiued into a com- 
pound sentence by hence.] 

48. It often happens that the connective is omitted. 

Illustrations. 

" The queen of the spring, as she passed down the vale, 
Left her robe on the trees, [and] her breath on the gale." 
"The evil that men do livcs*after them ; the good is oft interred 
with their bones." [The connective but is understood between the 
two statements.] 

49. In the following table will be found the principal con- 
nectives arranged under the three classes : 

1. And-type. 2. But-type. 3. Hence-type. 

And. But. Hence. 

Also. Either, or. Whence. 

Moreover. However. Therefore. 

As well as. Whereas. Accordingly. 

Not onl3% also. Yet, and yet. Consequently. 

Not merely. Nevertheless. So. 

Besides. Else, or else. And so, so that. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 25 

50. In a compound sentence, where the relation of the mem- 
bers is copulative (£. e., of the hind expressed by and), the 
conjunction is often merged in a relative pronoun or adverb ; 
as, (1.) " He gave it to Peter, who (= and he) immediately 
handed it to John." (2.) "I hope to meet you to-morrow, 
when (= and then) we can arrange the matter." The relative 
adverbs so used are principally lohen, where, while, wherefor. 

*#* As'the relative pronouns and adverbs generally introduce sub- 
ordinate propositions (clauses), a compound sentence of this nature 
must not be confounded with a complex sentence. 

51. Sentences whose statements are joined by connectives 
of the AND-type are called copulative sentences ; those whose 
statements are joined by connectives of the BuT-type are called 
antithetical sentences ; and those whose statements are joined 
by connectives of the HENCE-type are called illative sentences. 

Exercise 8. 



Add to each of the following statements another statement, so 
as to make a Copulative Compound Sentence : 
Example. — In spring the farmer plows, and (in autumn he reaps). 

1. In spring the farmer plows, and . 

2. In winter the days are short, and . 

0. Salt is procured from salt-mines ; it is also . 

4. Washington was a great soldier, . 

5. In various countries, different animals are used for beasts ot 
burden ; we use the horse, and . 

B. # 

Add to each of the following statements another statement, so 
as to malce an Antithetical Compound Sentence : 

Example.— Many persons tried to discourage Columbus, but (he 
was determined to persevere). 

1. Many persons tried to discourage Columbus, but . 

2. Though Belgium is a small country, yet . 

3. Religion dwells not on the tongue, . 

4. It must be so : Plato, thou reasonest well ; else . 

5. Napoleon was the greatest conqueror that ever lived ; neverthe- 

less . 

6. Although sugar is made chiefly from the sugar-cane, . 



Add to each of tlie following statements another statement, so 
•s to malce an Illative Compound Sentence : 

Example. — The shadow of the earth on the moon's disk is always 
round ; hence (this is a proof of the earth's rotundity ). 
2 



26 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

1. The shadow of the earth on the moon's disk is always round ; 

hence . 

2. The boy studied diligently, and therefore . 

0. The British Government unjustly taxed the American colonics, 

and consequently . 

4. He lived extravagantly ; therefore . 

5. Arnold had never firmness to resist the slightest temptation ; 

so that . 

2. Contracted Compound Sentences. 

52. The members of a compound sentence may have a com- 
mon part in either the subject or the predicate ; in which case 
the sentence is said to be contracted. 

Example 1.— Contraction in the Subject. 

(a.) The birds saw the little pool, and the birds came there to 
drink. 
The birds saw the little pool, and came there to drink. 

(6.) The reasonable expectations of himself, and the reasonable 
expectations of his friends, were disappointed. 
The reasonable expectations of himself and of his friends 
were disappointed. 

Example 2.— Contraction in the Predicate. 

(a.) Birds of the air find shelter in the shadow of its wide-spread- 
ing branches, and beasts of the forest find shelter in the 
shadow, etc. 
Birds of the air and beasts of the forest find shelter in the 
shadow of its wide-spreading branches. 

(b.) Cold produces ice, and heat dissolves ice. 

Cold produces and heat dissolves ice. [Object contracted.] 

(c.) The authorities have spoken with discretion, and the au- 
thorities have acted with discretion. [Qualifying phrase 
contracted.] 

Exercise 9. 

Contract the following Compound Sentences, and date the 
nature of the contraction : 

1. The jackal happened to be at a short distance, and the jackal 
was instantly dispatched on this important business. 

2. The rice-plant grows in great abundance in China; the rice- 
plant grows in great abundance in Japan; the rice-plant grows in 
great abundance in India. 

3. The east coast of Australia is rugged, and the east coast of Aus- 
tralia is deeply indented. 

4. Julius Ctesar wrote with great vigor ; Julius Caesar fought with 
the same vigor. 

5. Light is a necessity of life, and air is a necessity of life. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 27 



3. Punctuation of Compound Sentences. 

53. The following are the principal rules for punctuating 
compound sentences : 

(1.) The members of a compound sentence are subject to the 
rules of punctuation that have been given for the simple and 
for the complex sentence. 

(2.) A compound sentence consisting of two short members 
connected by a conjunction, especially when there is contrac- 
tion, does not require a comma; as, (a.) A little school-girl 
pressed a cherry between her lips and threw away the stone, (b.) 
I will arise and go to my father. 

(3.) The members of a compound sentence, whether full or 
contracted, are generally separated by commas, and always 
when there are more than two ; as, (a.) On these trees they 
placed large stones, and then covered the lohole with damp earth. 
(b.) The rich and the poor, the high and the low, the old and the 
young, icere alike subjected to the vengeance of the conqueror. 

(4.) The members of a compound sentence, which are them- 
selves subdivided by commas, are separated by semicolons ; as, 
Having detained you so long already , I shall not trespass longer 
upon your patience; but, before concluding, I wish you to ob- 
serve this point. 

(5.) In contracted compound sentences, omissions within 
the propositions are generally indicated by commas; as, To 
err is human; to forgive, divine. 

Exercise 10. 

Punctuate the following Compound Sentences: 

1. The keenest wit the most playful fancy the most genial criti- 
cism, were lavished year after year with a profusion almost miracu- 
lous. 

2. On my approach the buffalo heaving himself forward with a 
heavy rolling gallop and dashing with precipitation through brakes 
and ravines again set off full tilt while several deer and wolves star- 
tled from their coverts by his thundering career ran helter-skelter 
right and left across the prairie. 

6. I spared no means to bring to pass whatever appeared necessary 
for my comfortable support for I considered the keeping up a breed 
of true creatures thus at my hand would be a living magazine of fresh 
milk butter and cheese. 

4. Prosperity will gain friends but adversity will try them. 

5. Ovid's pretended offense was the writing of certain verses but it 
is agreed on all hands and is in effect ownedby himself that this was 
not the real cause of his exile. 

(5. All nature is but art unknown to thee 

All chance direction which thou canst not sec 
All discord harmony not understood 
All partial evil universal good. 



28 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

Practical Exercise in Composing. 

Read aloud the following piece, and then make an abstract 
from memory. 

VALUE OF POINTS. 
A gentleman, being in a town in which he was a stranger, chanced 
to pass a barber's shop, at the door of which he Eaw the following 
notice: 

What do you think 

I'll shave you for nothing 

And give you some drink. 

Wishing to satisfy his curiosity, which was excited by this unusual 
announcement, he entered the shop; and, engaging in conversation 
with tke barber, remarked that he must surely have made a fortune 
by his business. The barber seemed surprised, and asked him what 
reason he had for thinking so. " Whj 7 ," said the gentleman, "be- 
cause you can afford not only to shave your customers for nothing, 
but to give them drink besides." " I wish I could," replied the bar- 
ber ; " but that, unfortunately, is not the case." " Why, then, do you 
make that announcement at the door of your shop'/" rejoined the 
gentleman. " I do nothing of the sort," returned the barber; "it is 
you who have not read it properly." " Pray, how then should it be 
read ?" inquired the other. " Thus," said the barber : 

"What! Do you think I'll shave you for nothing, and give you 
some drink ?" 

[Jsip' Exchange papers, and criticise the punctuation very 
closely. 

4. Synthesis of Compound Sentences. 

54. In forming compound sentences out of elements as giv- 
en below, we must carefully consider the nature of the sepa- 
rate statements, so as (1.) to connect in construction the mem- 
bers that are connected in sense, and (2.) to employ the proper 
conjunction when one is required. In connecting the state- 
ments into one compound sentence, contraction is much em- 
ployed, and the participial phrase is very useful. 

Example 1. 
' 1. I had often received an invitation from my friend Sir 
Roger dc Coverlcy to pass away a mouth with him 
in the country, 
-p _ J 2. I last week accompanied him thither. 

3. I am settled with him for some time at his country - 

housq. 

4. I intend there to form several of my ensuing specu- 
lations. 

f Having often received an invitation from my friend Sir 

Roger deCoverley to pass away a month with him in 

Combined J ^ ne C0UU t r 3 T > I hist week accompanied him thither, 

1 and am settled with him for some time at his coun- 
try-house, where I intend to form some of my ensu- 
ing speculations. 



fHa\ 

"I 8 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 29 

Note. — In combining the statement, the first is changed to a 
participial phrase, and introduces the sentence. Statement 2 
forms the first main member. Statement 3 forms the second 
main member, and is connected with the preceding by a copu- 
lative conjunction. Statement 4 appears as a third main mem- 
ber, and is connected by the relative adverb where (= and there). 
See IT 50, p. 25. 

Example 2. 

(1. The storm increased with the night. 
2. The sea was lashed into tremendous confusion. 
3. There was a fearful sullen sound of rushing waves. 
4. There was a fearful sullen sound of broken surges. 
5. Deep called unto deep. 

{As the storm increased with the night, the sea was 
lashed into tremendous confusion, and there was a 
fearful sullen sound of rushing waves and broken 
surges, while deep called unto deep. 

Exercise 11. 
Combine tlie following statements into Compound Sentences: 

1. The island at first seemed uninhabited. 

The natives gradually assembled in groups on the shore. 
The natives overcame their natural shyness. 
The natives received us very hospitablj 7 . 

They brought down for our use the various products of their 
island. 

2. The great southern ocean is crowded with coral islands. 
It is crowded with submarine rocks of the same nature. 
These rocks are rapidly growing up to the surface. 
There they are destined to form new habitations for man. 
They will at length overtop the ocean. 

3. On the scaffold his behavior was calm. 

On the scaffold his countenance was unaltered. 

On the scaffold his voice was unaltered. 

He spent some time in devotion. 

Afterward he suffered death. 

He died with intrepidity. 

This intrepidity became the name of Douglas. 

4. In the interior of the Cape of Good Hope, the beasts of the for- 

est had for ages lived in comparative peace. [First leading 
proposition.] 

The wounded and terrified animals felt (something). [Second 
leading member, introduced by an adversative conjunction.] 

The Europeans spread themselves along the coast. [Adverbial 
clause of time.] 

The Europeans forced their way into the woods. [Adverbial 
clause of time.] 

The security was now gone. [Noun clause, object oifclt.] 

They had enjoyed security. [Adjective clause, adjunct of securi- 
ty-] 



SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 



Practical Exercise in Composing. 

Write a composition from the following outlines, and under- 
line the Compound Sentences : 

BIRDS 1 -NESTS. 

1. Why they are built.— Places where the birds may lay and 

Latch their eggs — as dwellings for their young. 

2. Materials from which they are made.— Enumerate these— 

straw, twigs, moss, wool, clay, etc. 

3. Form, and how they are made. — Describe the shape of birds'- 
nests, and how the birds work them into shape. This is done by 

"instinct." What is instinct? 

4. Where birds build.— Mention where the birds with whose hab- 

its you are acquainted build. Where does the thrush build ? 
the whip-poor-will? the martin? "The swallow twittering 
from its straw-built shed ?" Where do birds of prey build ? 

5. Relate any personal experience you have had with birds'-ne^ts. 

JJ3IF* Exchange papers, and criticise with reference to — 

1. Spelling, punctuation, grammar, etc. 

2. The construction of the compound sentences. [See that they 

are not too long, and that they do not contain too many mem- 
bers connected by ands.] 



CHAPTER IV. 

CONVERSION OF SENTENCES. 



1. Expansion. 

55. A simple sentence may be converted into a complex 
sentence by changing some word or phrase into a clause. A 
complex sentence may be converted into a compound sentence 
by changing a clause (subordinate statement) into an inde- 
pendent member. The process by which these changes are 
made is called Expansion. 

Example 1. 

Simple Quarrelsome persons arc despised. 

Complex Persons wlio are quarrelsome are despised. 

Examine 2. 

c IVPIP (The minutest animal, examined attentively, affords a 

" IMPLE J thousand wonders. 

Comptex i ^ ne m ' nutcst animal, rvhen it is examined attentively, af- 
/ fords a thousand wonders. 



conversion of sentences. 31 

Example 3. 

Simple No one doubts the roundness of the earth. 

Complex No one doubts that the earth is round. 

Compound. . . .The earth is round, and no one doubts it [or the fact]. 

Example 4. 

QTHTT.TT. i The British, having advanced to Washington, burned 

toIMPLE \ the Capitol and other public buildings. 

i The British, tv7w advanced [or, when they advanced] to 
Complex...-] Washington, burned the Capitol and other public 

( buildings. 

nmrBAnvn i The British advanced to Washington, and burned the 
compound.. ( capitoi and other public buildings. 

Exercise 12. 

A. 
Expand, the following Simple Sentences into Complex: 

1. The physician predicted the recovery of your father. 

2. Men of great talent are not always lovable persons. 

3. The Jews still expect the coming of the Messiah. 

4. The rainbow seen yesterday evening was very beautiful. 

5. The stars appear small to us because of their distance. 
(5. Biding along, I observed a man by the roadside. 

B. 

Expand the following Simple Sentences into Complex, and 
then, if possible, into Compound : 

1. The light-infantry having joined the main body, the enemy retired 
precipitately into Lexington. 

2. The water is not fit to drink on account of its saltness. 

3. With patience he might have succeeded. 

4. The wind being fair, the vessel put to sea. 

5. The door being opened, the people crowded into the hall. 
G. The child obeys, from love to his parents. 

2. Contraction. 

56. Compound sentences are reduced to complex and to 
simple sentences by contraction — which is just the reverse of 
expansion. It consists in converting one of the independent 
members of the compound sentence into a clause, and in con- 
verting the clause of the complex sentence into a phrase or 
a word. 

Example 1. 

n™*™™^ i Egypt is a fertile countrv, and is watered by the riv- 
Compousd.. . . j f/ NUC) wh . eh anmiaIly ' inundates it. 



82 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

^ ( Egypt is a fertile country, which is watered by the 

^UMiuasx ^ riyer Nilc> aud wnicll is annually inundated by it, 

Simple ^ Egypt is a fertile country watered by the river Nile, 

' { and annually inundated by it. 



roMPnrvr, * He was a worthless man, and therefore could not be 
tOM1 OL>D ' • • j respected by his subjects. 

asnmv* j Since he was a worthless man, he could not be re- 

uomplex ( S pected by his subjects. 

o„ TT1T _, \ Being a worthless man, he could not be respected by 

° i:vnLE 1 his subjects. 

Exercise 13. 

A. 

Contract the following Complex Sentences into Simple Sen- 
tences : 

1. As Egypt is annually inundated by the Xile, it is a very fertile coun- 
try. 

2. The ostrich is unable to fly, because it has not wings in ])roportivn 
to its body [not having]. 

S. While Dr. Johnson icas writing many of his loorkSyhe was in great 
distress. 

4. Unless we are diligent, nothing can be done that is worth doing. 

5. Sulla resigned the~dictatorship/i»- the reason that he hoped to enjoy 
quiet in private life. [Participial phrase] 



Contract the folloicing Compound Sentences into Complex, 
and, where possible, into Simple. 

1. The doors were opened, and the crowd immediately rushed in. 

2. Croesus was enormously rich, and yet he was far from happy. 

3. He descended from his throne, as*cended the scaffold, and said, 
"Live, incomparable pair." 

4. You are perplexed, and I see it. 



CHAPTER V. 

combination of sentences. 

57. We have learned about the different sorts of sentences. 
Now we shall apply our knowledge in combining sentences in 
short compositions. 

58. Direction I. — Read carefully the various statements in 
the paragraph. Select such as seem to be the leading state- 
ments, and express the other thoughts by means cf adjuncts to 
these, either as words, phrases, or clai 



COMBINED SENTENCES. 33 

59. Defection II. — Aim at variety of construction ; that is, 
do not have the sentences all of any one type ; but make them 
Simple, Complex, or Compound, as seems best. 

60. Defection III. — Be very careful not to join together 
facts that have no natural or logical connection into long, loose, 
compound sentences connected by amis. fl3^" If you have con- 
structed a very long compound sentence, either cast some of 
the members into clauses and phrases ; or, better still, break up 
the sentence into two or more. 



Examples. 

{A fox was passing through a vineyard, and he 
saw some fine bunches of grapes on one of the 
trees, and so he tried to reach one of them, but 
it was hanging very high, and he could not get 
I it. 

{A fox, passing through a vineyard, saw some 
fine bunches of grapes on one of the trees. 
He tried to reach one of them, but as it hung 
very high he could not get it. 

§3^*" The following will illustrate the method of combining 
detached statements into well-constructed sentences : 
Subject. — " Anecdote of Alphonso. ^ 

1. Alphonso was King of Sicily. 2. Alphonso 
was King of Naples. 3. Alphonso was remark- 
able for his kindness to his subjects. 4. At 
one time Alphonso was traveling privately 
through Campania. 5. Alphonso came up to 
a muleteer. 6. The muleteer's beast had stuck 
in the mud. 7. The muleteer could not draw 
it out with all his strength. 8. The poor man 
had implored the aid of every passer in vain. 

9. He now sought assistance from the king. 

10. He did not know who the king was. 11. 
Alphonso quickly dismounted from his horse. 
12. Alphonso helped the man. 13. Alphonso 
soon freed the mule. 1-1. Alphonso brought 
it upon safe ground. 15. The muleteer learned 
that it was the king. 16. The muleteer fell on 
his knees. 17. The muleteer asked his par- 
don. 18. Alphonso removed his fears. 19. 
Alphonso told him that he had given no of- 
fense. 20. This goodness of the king recon- 
ciled many to him. 21. Many had formerly 
opposed him. 

Method op Synthesis. 
Unite 1, 2, 3 into one simple sentence, because the principal 
statement is, " was remarkable for his kindness," etc. ; " King 
of Sicily," " King of Naples," will come in as appositional 
phrases. 



Detached State- 
ments 



34 



SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 



Unite 4, 5, C, 7 into one complex sentence, and substitute 
the pronoun he for Alphonso. 

Unite 8, 9, 10 into one complex sentence, making 9 the prin- 
cipal predicate, 8 an acljective clause. 

Unite 11, 12, 13, and 14 into one compound sentence, mak- 
ing 11 one principal member, 12 a participial phrase, 13 and 
14 principal members. 

Unite 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 into one compound sentence, mak- 
ing 15 a participial phrase, 16 and 17 principal predicates; 
connect 18 as a principal member by means of hut and con- 
vert 19 into a prepositional phrase. 

Unite 20 and 21 as a complex sentence. 

"Alphonso, King of Sicily and Naples, was re- 
markable for his kindness to his subjects. At 
one time when traveling privately in Campa- 
nia, he came up to a muleteer, whose beast 
had stuck in the mud, and who could not 
draw it out with all his strength. The poor 
man, Mho had in vain implored the aid of every 
passer, now sought assistance from the king, 
not knowing who he was. Alphonso quickly 
dismounted from his horse, and helping the 
man, soon freed the mule, and brought it upon 
safe ground. The muleteer, learning that it 
was the king, fell on his knees and asked his 
pardon; but Alphonso removed his fears by 
telling him that he had given no offense. This 
goodness of the king reconciled many who had 
lormerly been opposed to him." 



The Synthesis. 



Exercise 14. 

Combine the following statements into well- constructed sen- 
tences — Simple, Complex, and Compound — so as to make a good 
continuous narrative: 

ABOUT TEA. 

1. Tea is the dried leaf of a shrub. 2. This shrub 
grows chiefly in China and Japan. 3. It is an 
evergreen. 4. It grows to the height of from 
four to six feet. 5. It bears beautiful white 
flowers. 6. These flowers resemble wild roees. 
7. In China, there are many tea -farms. 8. 
These are generally of small extent. 8. They 
are situated in the upper valleys. 10. They 
are situated on the sloping sides of the hills. 
11. In these places the soil is light. 12. It is 
rich. 13. It is well drained. 14. The plants 
are raised from seed. 15. They are generally 
allowed to remain three years in the ground. 

16. A crop of leaves is then taken from them. 

17. The leaves arc carefully picked by the 
hand. 



Detached State- 
ments 



COMBINED SENTENCES. 85 



THE OSTRICH. 

The ostrich inhabits the sandy deserts of Asia. It inhabits the 
sandy deserts of Africa. It is from seven to eight feet high. We 
measure from the top of the head to the ground. The head is small. 
The neck is long. Both head and neck are destitute of feathers. The 
feathers on the' body of the male are black. The feathers on the fe- 
male are dusky. The thighs are naked. The legs are hard. The 
legs are scaly. The ostrich has two very large toes. These toes are 
of unequal size. The largest is seven inches long. The other is 
about four inches long. The hunting of this bird fs very laborious. 
The bird is very swift. The fleetest horse can not overtake it. The 
following mode is adopted by the Arabians to catch it. One con- 
tinues the chase as long as possible. The chase is then taken up by 
another. The bird is at length worn down. 

HISTORY OF PAPER. 

The first manufactured paper we hear of was that made from the 
papyrus. The papyrus is a species of reed growing abundantly in 
the waters of the Nile. Did the art of making it originate among the 
Egyptians themselves ? We have no means of judging of this. Paper 
of this sort was known to the Greeks and Romans. The first appears 
beyond a doubt to have been manufactured in Egypt. The article 
became known and valued. It formed an important article of com- 
merce to the Egyptians. The Egyptians exported it in large quan- 
tities. 

THE OWL. 

The owl conceals itself by day in the recesses of ivy-clad ruins. It 
conceals itself in the hollows of old trees. It conceals itself in barns. 
It conceals itself in hay-lofts. Toward twilight it quits its perch. - 
Toward twilight it takes a regular circuit round the fields. It skims 
along the ground in quest of mice. It skims along the ground in 
quest of rats. It skims along in quest of moles, shrews, and large in- 
sects. It seizes its prey. It returns with it in its claws. The owl is 
thus of great utility. It destroys an enormous quantity of mice. It 
destroys an enormous quantity of other vermin. These would other- 
wise do great damage. 

A BATTLE-EIELD. 

What a scene must a field of battle present ! There thousands are 
left without assistance. Thousands are left without pity. Their 
wounds are exposed to the piercing air. The blood flows. The blood 
freezes. The blood binds them to the earth. They are amidst the 
trampling of horses. They are amidst the insults of an enraged foe. 
They may be spared by the humanity of the enemy. They may be 
carried from the field. It is but a prolongation of torment. They 
are often conveyed in uneasy vehicles to a remote distance through 
roads almost impassable. They are lodged in ill-prepared receptacles 
lor the wounded. They are far from their native home. No tender 
assiduities of friendship are near. No well-known voice is near. No 
wife is near. No mother is near. No sister is near. These do not 
soothe their sorrows. They do not relieve their thirst. They do not 
close their eyes in death. 



36 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 



A BENEFACTOR IN DISGUISE. 

Sir James Thornliill was a distinguished painter. Sir James Thorn- 
hill was employed in decorating the interior of the dome of St. Paul's 
Cathedral. One day Sir Jamcs'Thornhill wished to observe the effect 
of a certain part of his work. He moved backward from it along the 
scaffolding. He moved until he had reached the very edge. Another 
step would have dashed him to pieces on the pavement below. His 
servant at this moment observed his danger. His servant in an in- 
stant threw a pot of paint at the picture. Sir James immediately 
rushed forward to chastise the man for his apparently unjustifiable 
conduct. When the reason was explained to Sir James, he could not 
give the man sufficient thanks. He could not sufficiently admire his 
ready ingenuity. The servant might have called out to warn him of 
his danger. He would probably have lost his footing. He would 
probably have been killed. 

KING ALFRED. 

Alfred succeeded to the throne in 873. The English people were 
then sunk in the grossest ignorance. The monasteries were at that 
time the only seats of learning. They had been destroyed by the 
Danes. The monks had been "dispersed. Their libraries had been 
burned. In the preface to one of his works, the king made a lamen- 
tation. He lamented that so few of the priests could interpret the 
Latin service. He supplied the means of instruction for his subjects. 
Little inclination was manifested to profit by them. A law was there- 
fore enacted with respect to freeholders. They were enjoined to send 
their children to school. Alfred is said to have founded the Univer- 
sity of Oxford. He is said to have endowed it with many privileges. 
The nobility followed their sovereign's example. He had reason ere 
long to congratulate himself on theimprovement of the habits of his 
people. His own example was well worthy of imitation. He devoted 
one third part of his time to study and devotion. He devoted the re- 
mainder to sleep and recreation. On all sides a spirit of industry pre- 
vailed. Cities rose from their ruins. Castles rose from their ruins. 
The dwellings of the inhabitants assumed an air of comfort. Such 
comfort was before unknown. 



PART II. 

VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 



Note. — In learning to write, it is of the greatest importance to 
gain a knowledge of the various ways of expressing a thought. 
Young writers "are in danger of forming nearly all their sen- 
tences in the same way, and also of using the same words too 
frequently. It is the design of the following exercises to rem- 
edy these faults by showing the pupil how he may vary the 
mode of expression. When he has acquired facility in doing 
this, he will have learned one of the most important secrets of 
the art of writing, for good writing is simply the "art of put- 
ting things." 

61. Variation of expression may be divided into two parts : 
1. Variation of arrangement or structure. 2. Variation of 
phraseology. The first regards the arrangement of the compo- 
nent parts of a sentence, and the type of sentence, as Simple, 
Complex, or Compound. The second regards the words and 
phrases that ate used. 



CHAPTER I. 

VARIATION IN ARRANGEMENT AND STRUCTURE. 

G2. Method I. — By using the passive voice of a verb in 
place of the active, or the active in place of the passive. 

Illustrations. 

A ^ mTTTT , j One common spirit actuated all the leading men of the 
active . . -j Revolution< 

p ( The leading men of the Revolution were all actuated by 

rAs&iv*, . . | one commou spirit> 

p. ot , TVT , j It was said bv Talleyrand that the object of language is 
r Abt>i\ e .. -j tQ conceal thought. 

*-„,-..„ \ Talleyrand said that the object of language is to conceal 

ACTI\E .. •> thonirht 



SCnOOL COMPOSITION. 



Exercise 15. 

Vary the structure of the following sentences by changing the 
Active into Passive, and the Passive into Active. 

1. Galileo invented the telescope. 

2. Whatever is offensive in our manner is corrected by gentleness. 

3. Darius, king of Persia, was defeated by Miltiades the Athenian. 

4. Education forms the youthful mind. 

5. Every summer we may observe the mischievous effects of the ra- 
pacity of birds in the vegetable kingdom. 

0. About two hours before midnight, Columbus, standing on the 
deck, noticed a light at a distance, and pointed it out to his compan- 
ion, Pedro. 

63. Method II. — 3y changing a statement into the forni 
of an interrogation. — The primary use of interrogation is to 
ask a question. But a statement may often be made in the 
form of a question when no answer is expected ; and such a 
question is often much more emphatic and convincing than 
the direct declaration w r ould be. 

Illustrations. 

Declaration. — No one can count the number of the stars. 
Question. — Who can count the number of the stars? 

Declaration.— Ev cry one hopes to live long. 
Question. — Who does not hope to live long? 

It will be seen that the declarative form of these sentences 
is tame and feeble compared with the implied statement made 
by the question. 

*3i* Observe that a negative statement implies an affirmative ques- 
tion, and the reverse. 

Exercise 16. 
Vary the expression by the interrogative method. 

1. No one can listen to the recital of such misery and remain un- 
moved. 

2. This is not the character of British justice. 

3. The Judge of all the earth will do right 

4. We are indebted to the vegetable world for a great part of our 
clothing. 

5. We shall not gather strength by irresolution and inaction. 
G. Can storied urn or animated bust, 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? 
Can honor's voice provoke the silent dust, 
Or flatten- soothe the dull cold ear of death ? 



VARIATION IN ARRANGEMENT AND STRUCTURE. 39 

64. Method III. — By changing a statement into the form 
of an exclamation. — This arrangement of the words will often 
express a thought in a more lively and striking manner than 
will a mere statement. 

Illustration. 

Statement. — The moonlight sleeps sweet upon this bank. 
Exclamation. — How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! 

65. In exclamatory sentences the verb is frequently omitted. 
Example. — What enchanting music ! This is the elliptical 
form of WMt enchanting music this is ! and this, in turn, is the 
exclamatory form of the statement, The music is enchanting. 

Exercise 17. 

Vary the structure ~by changing the sentence into the exclama- 
tory form. 

1. The scenes of my childhood are dear to my heart. 

2. I wish that I were \oh that] capable of placing this great man 
before you. 

3. Sleep is wonderful. 

4. Their harmony foretells a world of happiness. — Foe's " Bells." 

5. I would give my kingdom for a horse, a horse. 

6. It is very cold. 

66. Method IV. — By using the idiomatic "words "there" 
or "it." — Almost any sentence may be changed by prefixing 
there and placing the subject after the verb. In this form of 
expression there may be called an introductory particle. 

*** Since the beginning is the usual place for the subject, if we 
want to emphasize the subject unusually, we must remove it from 
the beginning. 

Illustrations. 

A thick mist arose from the valley = There arose a ihick mist from the 
valley. 

A voice came from heaven saying, "Thou art my beloved Son" = 
There came a voice from heaven saying, "Thou art my beloved 
Son." 

67. In like manner, by the use of it is, it icas, etc., we may 
vary the form of expression, and make particular parts of a 
sentence emphatic. 

Illustrations. 

Milton wrote "Paradise Lost" =It ^cas Milton %cho wrote "Paradise 
Lost." 

With a handful of men Napoleon routed all these forces = It was 
with a handful of men Napoleon routed all these forces. 



40 



SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 



Exercise 18. 
Vary the foMomng expressions: 

Use there. 

1. A very large comet was seen in 1680. 

2. A report was in circulation that the army had been defeated. 

3. No place is like home. 

4. A hraver soldier than Old Put. never lived. 

5. A poor exile of Erin came to the beach. 

6. "A divinity shapes our ends," says Shakspearc. 

Use it is, or it was. 

1. Scipio conquered Hannibal. 

2. Mutual respect makes friendship lasting. 

3. We are to blame. 

4. Thomas built this house. 

5. By rigid economy men grow rich. 

6. To have loved and lost, is better than never to have loved at all. 

63. Method V. — By abridging clauses into phrases or 
words. — This is the process of converting complex into simple 
sentences. We have already seen how this is done; but as 
this method is of great utility, a systematic view of it is here 
given. 

When they had reduced it = having reduced it. 
As I have no anxiety = having no anxiety. 
As we were exceedingly tossed = being exceed- 
ingly tossed. 
When shame is lost = shame being lost. 
If peace of mind has been secured = peace of mind 

being secured. 
After they had given and received many wounds — 

after many wounds given and received. 
Before he arrived = before his arrival. 
He was alarmed when he heard = at hearing, or 

on hearing. 
The chair is put there that you may sit on it = 

the chair is put there for you to sit on. 
I hired the house that I might live in it = I hired 
the house to live in. 

A fact that must not be spoken about = a fact not 
to be spoken about. 

A house, which stands near ours = a house stand- 
ing near ours. 

The place where Moses is burial = the place of 
Moses's burial, or Moses's burial-place. 

The army that was routed = the routed army. 

I know the reason tehy you do not improve = I 
know the reason of your not improving. 

The period when the mariner's compass was dis- 
covered is uncertain = the period of the dis- 
covery of the mariner 8 compass is uncertain. 



Adverb Clauses 
changed 



Adjective Clauses 

CHANGED 



VARIATION IN ARRANGEMENT AND STRUCTURE. 41 

Tliat he is homely, is nothing = his being homely is 
nothing. 

The fact that he went is proof enough = the fact of 
his going is proof enough. 

I desire that you should read Milton = I desire you 
Noun Clauses J to read Milton. 
changed ... I We believe that the earth is round = we believe the 
earth to be round. 

I hear that he has gone to college = I hear of his hav- 
ing gone to college. 

Washington's greatest wish was that he might see his 
country happy = was to see his country, etc. 

Exercise 19. 
Vary the expressions in Italics oy employing equivalents sim- 
ilar to those just given. O^IT 3 State the nature of the Trans- 
formation. 

1. As Hooked over the paper, I saw this advertisement. 

2. If this point is admitted, we proceed to the next argument. 
8. Wellington was sure of victory even before Elucher arrived. 

4. It is a great secret that must not be whispered even to your cat. 

5. Johnson declared that wit consists in finding out resemblances. 
G. We did not know that Henry was sick. 

7. His favorite project was that he might make Scotland a republic. 

8. My father bought a machine with which to mow. 

9. Sydney asked a soldier that he tvould bring him some water. 

10. Loyalty to the king tohidi amounted to abject servility was a 
national trait of the Persians. 

11. The man that hath not music in himself is fit for treasons, strata- 
gems, and spoils. 

12. France at our doors, [though] he sees no dangers nigh. 

69. Method YI. — By changing from the indirect to the 
direct form of speech. — The Direct Form of speech gives 
the words of a speaker exactly as uttered by himself; the In- 
direct Form gives them as reported by another. jjyAll 
words in the Direct Form are to be inclosed in quotation- 
marks. 

Direct.— "I would rather," said Henry Clay, "be right than be 
president." 

Indirect. — Henry Clay said that he would rather be right than be 
president. 

Direct. — Lord Chatham remarked: "I rejoice that the grave has 
not closed upon me : that I am still alive to lift up my voice against 
a great wrong." 

Indirect. — Lord Chatham said he rejoiced the grave had not closed 
upon him: that he was still alive to lift up his voice against a great 
wrong. 

70. Direction. — In changing from the Indirect to the Di- 
rect Form of speech, the third person is used instead of the 
Jirst ; the past tense, instead of the present; and the demon- 
strative that, instead of this. 



42 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

Exercise 20. 
Change the quotations in the following passages from the Di- 
rect to the Indirect Statement : 

1. When Alexander the Great was asked why he did not contend 
in the Olympic Games, he said, "I will when I have kings for my 
competitors." 

2. In one of his letters, Pope says, "I should hardly care to have 
an old post pulled up that I remember when a child." 

3. "I have often," said Byron, "left my childish sports to ramble 
in this place; its glooms and its solitude had a mysterious charm for 
my young mind, nurturing within me that love of quietness and lone- 
ly thinking which has accompanied me to maturcr years." 

71. Method VII. — By transposition, i. c, by varying the 
order of the component parts of a sentence. — There is a 
customary order of the parts of a sentence which in ordinary 
speech and writing we unconsciously follow ; but, for the sake 
of emphasis or adornment, this natural arrangement of words 
is often departed from. The common arrangement may be 
called the Grammatical order ; the inverted arrangement, the 
Rhetorical order. The rhetorical order belongs peculiarly to 
poetry ; but it is often used in prose also. 

Illustrations. 



Grammatical Order. 

I implore hisjjardon. 

I dread his anger. 

I shall attempt neither to palliate 
nor deny the atrocious crime of 
being a young man. 

The gate is wide and the way is 
broad that leadeth to destruc- 
tion. 

They could take their rest, for 
they knew that Lord Stratford 
watched. They feared him, they 
trusted Aim, they obeyed him. 

The night-wind sighs, the break- 
ers roar, and the wild sea-mew 
shrieks. 



Rhetorical Order. 

His pardon I implore. 

His anger I dread. 

The atrocious crime of being a young 
man I shall attempt neither to 
palliate nor deny. 

Wide is the gate and broad is the 
way that leadeth to destruc- 
tion. 

They could take their rest, for 
they knew that Lord Stratford 
watched. Hun they feared, him 
they trusted, him they obeyed. 

The night-winds sigh, the break- 
ers roar, 

And shrieks the wild sea-mew. 



72. General Rule. — Emphatic words must stand in 
prominent positions; i.e., for the most part, at the begin- 
ning cr at the end of sentences. 

Exercise 21. 
Change the following sentences from the Common to the Rhe- 
torical order : 

1. The Alps are behind you. 

2. The uses of adversity arc sweet. 



VARIATION EN - ARRANGEMENT AND STRUCTURE. 43 

3. My brothers shall never again embrace me. 

4. He is a freeman whom the truth makes free. 

5. Diana of the Ephesians is great. 

6. Yet a few days and the all-beholding sun shall see thee no more. 

7. They laid him down slowly and sadly. 

8. I know Jesus, and I know Paul ; but who are ye ? 

9. He imprisoned some, he put to death others. 

10. Macbeth could scarcely understand what they said. 

73. As the rhetorical order belongs peculiarly to poetry, an 
excellent exercise in variety of expression is the transposing of 
poetry into prose. 

74. In transposing poetical passages from the Metrical to 
the Prose Order, all ellipses should be supplied, and the terms 
of each sentence should in the first instance be arranged in 
logical order — viz.: 1. The subject with its modifiers; 2. The 
verb ; 3. The object (or complement) ; 4. The adverbial phrases 
or clauses. This order may afterward be modified according 
to the rules vre have already had for the arrangement of phrases 
and clauses, so as to make the sentence more graceful and har- 
monious. 

75. The following are some of the chief peculiarities of po- 
etical construction : 

(1.) The auxiliary verb to do is dispensed with in interroga- 
tion — 

Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle? — Byron. 
Ho ! come ye in peace here, or come ye in war ? — Scott. 

(2.) The verb precedes the nominative — 
While stands the Coliseum, Rome shall stand. — Byron. 
Answered Fitz- James: "And if I thought." — Scott. 
O'er the path so well known still proceeded the maid. — Southey. 

(3.) The object precedes the verb — 
J.ands he could measure, times and tides presage. — Goldsmith. 
The Stuart sceptre well she swayed, but the sword she could not 
wield.— H. G. Bell. 

(4.) The noun precedes the adjective — 
Hadst thou sent learning, fair and true. — Scott. 
Now is the pleasant time, the cool, the silent. — JTilton. 

(5.) The adjective precedes the verb to le — 
Few and short were the prayers we said. — lYolfe. 
Rich icere the sable robes she wore. — H. G. Bell. 

(G.) The pronoun is expressed in the imperative — 
Wipe thou thine eyes. — Shakspcarc. 
But, blench not thou.— Byron. 

(7.) Adjectives are used for adverbs — 
False flew the shaft, though pointed well. — Jfoorc. 
Abrupt and loud, a summons shook the gate. — Campbell. 



44 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

(8.) Personal pronouns are used with their antecedents — 

The wind, it waved the willow boughs. — Southey. 
For the deck it was their lielcl of fame. — Campbell. 

(9.) The antecedent is omitted. 
Who steals my purse, steals trash. — Shakspcare. 
Happy, icho walks with him. — Couper. 

(10.) And — and is used for ooth — and. Or — or for either — 
or. Nor — nor for neither — nor — 

And trump and timbrel answered keen. — Scott. 
I whom nor avarice nor pleasures move. — Walsh. 

(11.) Adverbial phrases are not placed in juxtaposition with 
the words to which they grammatically belong — 
On thy voiceless shore 
The heroic lay is tuneless now. — Byron. 
By forms unseen their dirge is sung.— Byron. 

(12.) Prepositions are suppressed — 

Despair and anguish fled ( ) the struggling soul. — Goldsmith. 

And like the bird whose pinions quake 

But can not fly ( ) the gazing snake. — Byron. 

76. The following will serve as an illustration of the method 
of transposition from the poetic to the prose order. 

POETIC ORDER. 

Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, 

And all the air a solemn stillness holds, 
Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight, 

And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds: 

. Save, that from yonder ivy-mantled tower, 

The moping owl does to the moon complain 
Of such as, wandering near her secret bower, 
Molest her ancientsolitary reign. 

Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade, 
Where heaves the turf in many a mold'ring heap, 

Each in his narrow cell forever laid, 
The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. 

PROSE ORDER. 

The glimmering landscape now fades upon the sight, and all the air 
holds a solemn stillness, except where the beetle wheels his droning 
flight, and drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds; (and) except that 
the moping owl, from yonder ivy-mantled tower, complains to the 
moon of such as wander near her secret bower, and molest her an- 
cient solitary reign. The rude forefathers of the hamlet, each laid 
forever in his narrow cell, sleep beneath those ragged elms, (and) in 
the shade of that yew-tree where the turf heaves in many a molder- 
ing heap. 



VARIATION IN ARRANGEMENT AND STRUCTURE. 45 

Exercise 22. 
Transpose the following pieces of poetry into the Prose order: 

THE PILGRIM FATHERS. 

The breaking waves clashed high 

On a stern and rock-bound coast, 
And the woods against a stormy sky 

Their giant branches toss'd; 

And the heavy night hung dark, 

The hills and waters o'er, 
When a band of pilgrims moor'd their bark 

On the wild New England shore. 

Not as the flying came, 

la silence and in fear : 
They shook the depths of the desert gloom 

With their hymns of lofty cheer. 

What sought they thus afar? 

Bright jewels of the mine ? 
The wealth of seas, the spoils of war ? 

They sought a faith's pure shrine ! 

Ay, call it holy ground, 

The soil where first they trod ; 
They have left unstained what there they found — 

Freedom to worship God. 

Mks. Hemans. 

THE DEATH OF DE BOUNE. 

High in the stirrups stood the king, 
And gave his battle-axe the swing. 
Right on De Boune, the whiles he pass'd, 
Fell that stern dint — the first — the last ! 
Such strength upon the blow was put, 
The helmet crash' d like hazel-nut ; 
The axe-shaft, with its brazen clasp, 
Was shiver' d to the gauntlet grasp. 
Springs from the blow the startled horse, 
Drops to the plain the lifeless corse; 
First of that fatal field, how soon, 
How sudden, fell the fierce De Boune ! 

Walter Scott. 

THE VILLAGE BLACKSMITH. 

1. Under a spreading chestnut-tree 

The village smithy stands ; 
The smith, a mighty man is he, 

With large and sinewy hands ; 
And the muscles of his brawny arms 

Are strong as iron bands. 

2. His hair is crisp, and black, and long, 

His face is like the tan ; 



46 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

His brow is wet with honest sweat ; 

He earns whate'er he can, 
And looks the whole world in the face, 

For he owes not any man. 

3. Week in, week out, from morn till night, 

You can hear his bellows blow ; 
You can hear him swing his heavy sledge 

With measured beat and slow, 
Like a sexton ringing the village bell 

When the evening sun is low. 

4. And children coming home from school 

Look in at the open door; 
They love to see the flaming forge, 

And hear the bellows roar, 
And catch the burning sparks that fly 

Like chaff from a threshing-floor. 

5. Thanks, thanks to thee, my worthy friend, 

For the lessons thou hast taught ! 
Thus at the flaming- forge of life 

Our fortunes must be wrought ; 
Thus on its sounding anvil shaped 

Each burning deed and thought ! 

6. It sounds to him like his mother's voice 

Singing in Paradise ! 
He needs must think of her once more, 

How in the grave she lies ; 
And with his hard, rough hand he wipes 

A tear out of his eyes. 

Longfellow'. 

THE GRANDFATHER. 

1. The farmer sat in his easy-chair, 

Smoking his pipe of clay, 
While his hale old wile, with busy care, 

Was clearing the dinner away ; 
A sweet little girl, with fine blue eyes, 
On her grandfather's knee, was catching flics. 

2. The old man laid his hand on her head, 

With a tear on his wrinkled face ; 
He thought how often her mother dead 

Had sat in the self-same place ; 
As the tear stole down from his half-shut eye, 
"Don't smoke !" said the child ; "how it makes you cry !" 

3. Still the farmer sat in his easy-chair, 

While close to his heaving breast 
The moistened brow and the cheek so fair 

Of his sweet grandchild were pressed ; 
His head, bent down, on her soft hair lay ; 
Fast asleep were they both on that summer day. 



VARIATION OP PHRASEOLOGY. 47 

Practical Exercise in Composing. 

Write a composition from the following outlines. I^p 33 Be 
very careful with the construction of the sentences, and show that 
you have learned something by the lessons on- Variety of Ex- 
pression. 

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 

Introduction. — State what parts of the world were known, and 
what parts unknown, at the time of the birth of Columbus — speak 
about the prevailing incorrect notions regarding the. shape of the 
earth. 

Biography of Columbus. — His early history — born in Genoa during 
the first half of the 15th century — his early training and sea-life — 
his conviction that the earth is globe-like in shape— his theory of a 
western continent — is spurned by various governments — aided by 
Spain — his first voyage, and the "discovery. [Merely mention the 
later voyages in a single sentence.] His death in poverty and dis- 
grace. 

Character op Columbus. — The grandeur of his idea — his faith and 
perseverance— his boldness and courage— lessons his life should 
teach us. 



CHAPTER II. 

VARIATION OF PHRASEOLOGY. 



1. By the Uso of Syncnyms. 

77. Phraseology, or the language used in expressing a 
thought, is varied by substitution, which is the process of writ- 
ing in place of one word or phrase another of the same or 
similar meaning. 

78. Synonyms are words that have nearly the same mean- 
ing, sometimes the same general meaning, but a different shade 
of meaning ; as, for example, mix and blend. Both these words 
mean, in general, to put substances together so that their parts 
mingle or unite in some way ; but when sve are speaking of 
mixing two colors, and of the colors of the rainbow blending 
with one another, the particular meaning is very different. 
Mixing makes two colors one ; blending is their gradual, almost 
imperceptible, merging into one another. 

79. There are more words winch are nearly synonymous (in 
the strict sense) in English than in other languages, because in 
the case of a large proportion of words we have often two sets 
of derivatives, one from the Latin and the other from the An- 
glo-Saxon, which arc nearly parallel in meaning; as, 



4.S SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

Latin. tiaxon. 

Puerile = Boyish. 

Conceal = Hide. 

Deride == Laugh at. 

80. It will be found, generally speaking, that the Saxon ex- 
pression is the stronger of the two — the plainer, and therefore 
the stronger. Thus friendly is much more hearty and forcible 
than amicable. Hence it is a good general rule to prefer Sax- 
on terms to Latin. The former "will not always serve as well 
as the latter, but in most cases they Mill serve much better. 

81. Facility of expression is a most important quality of 
good writing. In order to acquire this we must have an am- 
ple stock of words, and we must also learn to distinguish the 
different shades of meaning in a group of words allied in a 
general way. Exercises like the following will be useful : 

Exercise 23. 

A. 

Supply the Appropriate Words : 

Account, description, detail, history, narration, narrative, relation, story. 

Bancroft's ( ) of the United States is not yet completed. 

He gives an interesting ( ) of the early voyagers. 

Have you read the ( ) of Damon and Pythias ? 

I hoped to move him by a ( ) of the dangers I have gouc 

through. 
His ( ) of that event is striking. 

Beat, conquer, overcome, subdue, surmount. 
In the 14th century, the French were ( ) by the English in 

many battles, and at last their country was ( ). 

Never allow yourselves to be ( ) by misfortune. 

He who ( ) his passions, ( ) his worst enemy. 

It is not by idle wishes that obstacles are ( ). 

Difficulty, hinderance, impediment, obstacle. 

He who undertakes any thing of importance will find that there 
are( ) to be encouutcred, ( ) to be surmounted, and ( ) 

to be removed. 

Difficulty is no ( ) to a decided mind. 

Discover, invent. 

Galileo ( ) Jupiter's satellites with the telescopes which he is 

said to have ( ). 

America was ( ) by Columbus. The barometer was ( ) 

by Torricelli. 

Compensation, satisfaction, amends, remuneration, recompense, requital, 

reward. 
After his house had been burned down he received full ( ) 

from the insurance office. 



VARIATION OF PHRASEOLOGY. 49 

What ( ) can you give for the insult you have offered ? what 

( .) for the injury you have done ? 

How much of what we 'do is influenced hy the hope of ( ) or 

the fear of punishment ! 

One would think that it is but poor ( ) to allow a man to 

shoot at you because he has insulted you. 

I know you are disinterested, for you have performed the duties of 
a laborious office, and refused all ( ). 

The oppressor should remember that a day of ( ) will come. 

Conceal, hide, dissemble, disguise. 

Her designs were ( ) from me. 

The hypocrite ( ) his real character under the cloak of religion. 

They so ( ) their intentions that the Government was com- 

pletely puzzled. 

A man of strict rectitude may ( ) his opinions, but not ( ) 

them. 

Ease, relief, mitigate, alleviate, cdlay, appease, soothe, tvanqitilize, quiet, 
still. 

Bunyan represents Christian as being ( ) of his burden at the 

sight of the cross. 

It is our duty to ( ) the distresses of others, by ( ) their 

sorrows, ( ) their fears, and ( ) their resentments. 

The wrath of Achilles was not to be ( ). 

Do not hope to ( ) your conscience while enjoying the fruits 

of your offense. 

Enjoyment, pleasure, delight, satisfaction, gratification. 

She is in the ( ) of excellent health. 

I hope to have the ( ) of spending a long evening with you. 

It gives me no ( ) to have the private affairs of my neighbor 

overhauled in my hearing. 

Life was given us for more important purposes than the ( ) of 

our animal appetites. 

True friendship is a source of exquisite ( ). 

B. 

Make sentences from each of the following sets of (so called) 
Synonyms, keeping the difference of meaning as clear as you can: 

Model. — 1. He did not arrive in time ; the delay of the train was a 
fortunate circumstance for him. 2. One would think your brother is 
always to be lucky. 



1. Fortunate— lucky. 

2. Folly— fooling. 

3. Communicate — impart. 

4. Brave — courageous. 

5. Erect— construct. 

6. Bind — tie. 

7. Reprove — reproach. 

8. Blame— censure. 

9. Behavior— conduct. 
10. Beat— strike. 



11. Pride — haughtiness. 

12. Proposed — proportion. 

13. Rural — rustic. 

14. Safe — secure. 

. 15. Shadow — shade. 

16. Sorry — grieved. 

17. Diligent — industrious. 

15. Pride — vanity. 

1'.). Healthy — wholesome. 
20. Petition — request. 



50 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 



In the following passages, change such words and phrases as 
are printed in Italics : 

Example. — As they proceeded, the indications of approaching land 
seemed to be more certain, and excited hope in projx>rtion. 
The birds commenced to show themselves in flocks, mak- 
ing for the south-west. 

As they advanced, the signs of approaching land appeared 
to be more marked, and inspired hope accordingly. The 
birds began to appear in flocks, flying toward the south- 
west. 

1. After a brief interval, the sovereigns requested of Columbus a. recital 
of his adventures. His manner was sedate and dignified, but warmed by 
the glow of natural enthusiasm. 

2. He enumerated the several islands he had visited, expatiated on the 
temperate character of the climate, and the capacity of the soil for ev- 
ery variety of production, appealing to the samples imported by him as 
evidence of their natural ])roductive7iess. 

3. He dwelt more at large on the precious metals to be found in 
these islands, which he inferred less from the specimens actually ob- 
tained than from the uniform testimony of the natives to their abun- 
dance in the unexplored regions of the interior. 

4. Lastly, he pointed out the wide scope afforded to Christian zeal in 
the illumination of a race of men whose minds, far from being wedded 
to any system of idolatry, were prepared by their extreme simpiicity for 
the reception of pure and uncorrupted doctrine. 

5. The last consideration touched Isabella's heart most sensibly ; and 
the whole audience were kindled with various emotio?is by the speaker's 
eloquence. 

6. When Columbus ceased, the king and queen, together with all 
present, prostrated themselves on their knees in grateful thanksgirhu/K, 
while the solemn strains of the Te Deum were poured forth by the 
choir of the royal chapel as in commemoration of some glorious victory. 

D. 

Substitute the Proper Synonyms for the wrongly-usal itali- 
cized words. 

1. Travelers in the mountains of Italy are frequently stopped by 
thieves and stripped of all their property. 

2. As his truth has never been called in question, we have no rea- 
son to doubt the veracity of his assertion. 

3. The pier had not sufficient force to resist the strength of the 
waves. 

4. Healthy food, pure air, and regular exercise will preserve both 
body and mind in a wholesome state. 

5. What safety can we have from tyranny, if judges are removable 
by the executive ? 

6. Julius Ca?sar is said to have been a man of amiable inclination. 

7. I have the pride to think that I have discovered a new machine. 

8. Brooklyn is contiguous to New York. 

9. What do you esteem this ring to be worth? 



VAEIATION OP PHRASEOLOGY. 51 

10. The sailors having asked leave of the captain were admitted to 
go on shore. 

11. Will you allow my first proposition to be true ? 

12. " Tomatoes," said she, "are very healthy ; they give force to the 
liver." 

2. By Denying the Contrary. 

82. An affirmative can often be converted into an equivalent 
negative, or a negative into an equivalent affirmative, $y the use 
of a word of opposite meaning in the predicate. 

Illustrations. 

1. Henry is indolent == Henry is not diligent. 

2. Solon, the Athenian, effected a great change in the constitution 
of his country = Solon, the Athenian, effected no small change in the 
constitution of his country. 

3. There is as much beauty in the earth as there is grandeur in the 
heavens = there is no less beauty in the earth than grandeur in the heavens. 

Exercise 24. 
Vary the expressions in the manner indicated : 

1. The miser is unhappy (far from). 

2. That tree is alive. 

3. It is difficidt to .get rid of bad habits. 

4. I hate you, Dr. Fell. 

5. The success at Trenton had a great influence on the war. 

6. The duration of our existence is finite. 

83. A change similar to that just given is made by Euphe- 
mism (soft-speaking), which is a roundabout manner of ex- 
pression, used to avoid the harshness of direct statement. 

Illustrations. 
Direct. Euphemisms. 

He ivas drunk = He had indulged himself in liquor. 

Mary is lazy = Mary is not noted for industry. 

I hate that man = I have not the warmest feeling of affec- 

tion for that man. 

Exercise 25. 
Vary the expression oy using Euphemism : 

1. Charles is a coward. 

2. He is a conceited fellow. 

3. I believe that he stole that book. 

4. John Brown was hanged. 

5. Jessie is a careless girl. 

G. That man was turned out of office. 



52 



SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 



3. By Periphrasis, or Circumlocution. 

84. Periphrasis, or Circumlocution, is the use of several 
words to express the sense of one. 

Illustrations. 
Plain Fo)-m. Beripkrasia. 

The sun = The glorious orb of day. 

Mankind = The human race. 

Geography = The science which describes the earth 

arid its inhabitants. 

Exercise 28. 
Vary the expression in the manner indicated: 

1. We must die. 

2. The ocean is calm. 

3. Washington is dead. 

4. Astronomy is a delightful study. 

5. Life is short. 

6. Obedience is due to our parents. 

4. By Hecasting the Sentence. 

85. The mode of varying the expression, which is called 
Recasting the Sentence, is one that can not be reduced to 
fixed rule. Practice, however, will give skill in changing the 
forms of statement so as to express a thought in many different 
ways. 

Illustrations. 
Tlie Whale is the largest Animal. 

The whale is larger than any other animal. 
The whale surpasses all other animals In size. 
The whale is unequaled in size by any other ani- 



Variations . 



Note.— In 
with the 



mal. 

The size of the whale exceeds that of any other 
animal. 

No animal is so large as the whale. 

All animals are inferior in size to the whale. 

The whale is pre-eminent over every other ani- 
mal in size. 

No other animal approaches the whale in magni- 
tude. 

All animals must yield to the whale in point of 
size. 

No other animal ever reaches the magnitude of 
the whale. 

The whale is without a rival in magnitude among 
other animals. 

In point of size, the whale surpasses all other 
animals. 
tance, each of these twelve sentences is identical 
^inal statement; but how many forms do we ob- 



VARIATION OF PIIRASEOLOGT. 53 

tain by calling in the aid of the art of varying expression ! 
Now, the practical importance of facility in changing the form 
of statement is this : we can not, in any case, be quite sure 
that we have employed the best mode of wording a given sen- 
tence until we have rapidly run over in our minds the various 
ways in which it may be worded. By practice we learn to 
compass the whole circuit of possible expression with almost 
telegraphic rapidity. 

Exercise 27. 

Write the following Simple Sentences in as many icays as 
possible without changing the real meaning : 

1. Iron is the most useful of all metals. 

2. The eye infinitely surpasses all the works of human ingenuity. 

3. Industry is the cause of prosperity. 

4. We may derive many useful lessons from the. lower animals. 

5. A profusion of beautiful objects everywhere surrounds us. 

6. Beware of desperate slips^the darkest day will by to-morrow 

have passed away. 



Practical Exercise in Composing. 

Mead aloud the following piece, and then maize an Abstract 
from Memory. Be particular in your choice of words : 

THE SWORD OF DAMOCLES. 

Damocles, one of the courtiers of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, 
was perpetually extolling with raptures his treasure, grandeur, the 
number of his troops, the extent of his dominions, the magnificence 
of his palaces, and the universal abundance of all good things and en- 
joyments in his possession, always repeating that never man icas hap- 
pier than Dionysius. " Since you are of that opinion," said the king, 
" will you in person make proof of my felicity ?" The offer was ac- 
cepted with joy : Damocles was placed upon a golden bed, covered 
with hangings of inestimable value. The sideboards were loaded with 
vessels of gold and silver; the most beautiful slaves, in the most 
splendid habits, stood round him watching the least signal to serve 
him. The most exquisite essences and perfume were" not spared; 
while the table was spread with proportionate magnificence. Dam- 
ocles was all joy, and looked upon himself as the" happiest man in 
the world. Just at this time he chanced to cast his ej-es up to the 
ceiling, where he saw the point of a sword that hung by a single 
horse-hair. From that moment his joy vanished, he lost his appetite, 
and became a most miserable man, for he could see nothing but the 
sword, and think of nothing but his danger. In this state of mind he 
begged to be restored to the security of his former position. 

The request w r as granted, and only then did he breathe freely. The 
ancient writers say "that Dionysius thus tacitly acknowledged that his 
happiness was poisoned by a constant terror he was under, of the pun- 
ishment he deserved for his cruelty and injustice. 



PAKT III. 

SIMPLE COMPOSITION EXERCISES. 



Teacher's Note. — It can not be doubted that the first step in 
composition must be to teach the beginner hoio to write at all ; 
the second, to show him how to write well. Hence, before pro- 
ceeding to the subject of Style (contained in Part IV.), pupils 
should be trained in the ordinary qualities of good writing — in 
the use of correct syntax, and in some facility of expression. 
The following simple Composition exercises are designed to 
give scholars practice in these qualities. 



DIRECTIONS TO PUPILS. 
1. On Sentence-making. 

I. Aim at Unity in your Sentences. In each sentence 
some one person or thing should usually be the subject of 
thought from beginning to end. Any departure from this rule 
tends to destroy the unity of the sentence. 

II. Aim at Variety in the Sequence of Sentences ; that 
is, do not make them all of the same kind — Simple, Complex, 
or Compound. A succession of unvarying little short sen- 
tences has a disagreeable, chopped-up effect ; while a succession 
of uniformly long sentences is trying to eye and ear. 

III. Aim at Coherence in your Sentences. In writing 
Compound Sentences, be very careful not to bring together 
thoughts that are not naturally and logically connected. And 
whenever you have written a very long sentence, break it up 
into two or more clear statements. Remember that the danger 
of falling into grammatical error increases in direct ratio to 
the length of a sentence. 

2. On the Choice of Words. 

I. Prefer Simple Words to those that are abstruse or unin- 
telligible. 

II. Avoid Circumlocution, or a roundabout way of express- 
ing a simple idea. 



DIRECTIONS TO PUPILS. 



55 



III. Avoid Redundancy, or the addition of words that the 
sense does not require. 

IV. Avoid Tautology, or the repetition of the same idea in 
different words. 

V. The substance of these rules is : Put the Maximum of 
Thought in the Minimum of Words. 

3. Cn Paragraphs. 

86. A composition of any length — even a letter (unless the 
very briefest note) — requires, in order to please the eye, and to 
have its scope readily taken in, to be divided into Paragraphs. 
A Paragraph is a connected series of sentences relating to the 
same subject, or part of a subject. 

(1.) Make a new paragraph at every marked break in the 
subject — at every new turn in the treatment. 

(2.) Let all the sentences in a paragraph relate to the same 
topic, and arrange the sentences so as to carry the line of 
thought easily and naturally from the one to the other. For 
this purpose, free use should be made of the continuative parti- 
cles and phrases ; as, however, moreover, indeed, consequently, at 
the same time, in like manner, etc. 

I. Descriptive Subjects. 

Write a short composition from the following Outlines: 
Subject— " Gold." 

'A precious metal — most abundant in California and 
Australia— found in many other places— color, 
bright yellow — nearly as soft as lead — most malle- 
able of all metals — one grain can be beaten so thin 
as to cover 5689 inches — very ductile — the same 
quantity can be drawn out into 500 feet of wire — 
gold coinage, alloyed with copper — use of gold in 
gilding — articles in a jeweler's shop. 

' Gold is the most valuable of the precious metals. 
It is distributed throughout the world, but is 
found most abundantly in California and Austra- 
lia. Its color is bright yellow, and it is nearly as 
soft as lead. It is the most valuable of all metals, 
and can be beaten so thin that a single grain may 
be made to cover nearly six thousand inches. It 
is also very ductile, the same quantity of gold being 
capable of being drawn out into five hundred feet 
of wire. Gold is coined into pieces of money, as 
eagles, half-eagles, etc., but for this purpose it is 
alloyed with copper. Its uses in gilding and jew- 
elry are well known. Look into the jeweler's 
store, and see how many articles are made of this 
metal! There arc watches, chains, brooches, 
rings, vases, vessels, and ornaments of every de- 
scription. 



Outlines . 



Composition. 



56 scnooL COMPOSITION. 

Outlines. 
Coal: 

An inflammable substance— color, black or brown— supposed to 
be of vegetable origin — found in all parts of the world — occurs 
in beds or strata — coal-pits and collieries — uses of coal : as fuel, 
in the arts, gas — the coal-fields of the United States : where 
they are— the great manufacturing cities that have grown up 
in consequence. 

The Whale : 

Belongs to one of the species of mammals— where found— enor- 
mous size and strength — tail 24 feet broad, and powerful enough 
to toss a boat high into the air. Surrounded with coating of 
blubber or fatty matter beneath the skin — (use of this). Whale- 
bone in its mouth instead of teeth, acting like a sieve to strain 
from the water the molluscous and other animals which are its 
food— nostril in top of its head, by which it breathes and blows 
out the water from its mouth in columns, rising to a great 
height. Hunted for whalebone, obtained from it alone, and 
made into numerous articles of utility — also for its blubber, 
from which great quantities of oil are extracted— whale- ships, 
etc. 

Bread : 

A preparation from one of the grains, or cereals — name the lead- 
ing ones— mention the kinds of bread— which is most in use in 
your part of the country? — mode of preparing wheaten bread : 
trace the process from the thrashing of the wheat till the loaf 
comes from the oven — the staff of life — used for food every- 
where — whatever else a country uses, its food is cheap or dear 
according to the price of bread. 

The Ship : 

Simplest form — the canoe of the savage — ships of the ancients — 
the caravels of Columbus— modern ships— their kinds: steam- 
ers and sailing-vessels— their construction— size— speed— util- 
ity in commerce. 

II. Narrative Subjects. 

A. 

Letter- Writing. 

Arrangement of a Letter. — The mechanical arrangement of 
a letter is important, and the following points should be at- 
tended to : 

1. The Date and the Place -where it is written. The day, 



LETTER-WRITING. 57 

month, and year should be given in full. Never date a letter 
merely by the day of the week ; as, " Sunday evening." 

2. The Form of Address; as, " Sir," "Dear Sir," "My dear 
Charles," " My dearest Father," according to the terms of in- 
timacy between the writer and the person addressed. 

3. The Narrative, or letter proper. 

4. The Subscription ; as, " Yours truly," " Yours faithfully," 
" Your affectionate brother," etc. (varying, as in No. 2, with the 
relations of the parties), and the Name of the writer. 

5. The Name of the Recipient. 

Superscriptions and Subscriptions. 

The following superscriptions, subscriptions, etc., of letters are de- 
signed to show what is now regarded the most approved arrange- 
ment and style of these parts ; and they may serve as models, aecord- 
ing to circumstances. 

Some of the most common forms of address are Sir, Dear Sir, My 
dear Sir, Respected Sir, Sirs, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen, Ladies, Madam, 
Dear Madam, etc. ; Friend Brown, Dear Susan, My dear Friend, Moth- 
er, Brother, etc. ; according to the relations of respect, intimacy, or 
affection existing between the parties. Note that the form of ad- 
dress, Madam, Bear Madam, is as applicable to unmarried as to mar- 
ried ladies. 

The closing part may be Yours, Yours truly, Most truly yours, 
Very truly yours, Yours respectfully, Respectfully, Sincerely yours, 
Your friend, obedient servant, etc. ; Yours affectionately, Your affec- 
tionate friend, Your loving brother, sister, etc., followed by the name 
of the writer. The closing will vary with the relations of the parties. 

Mr., Mrs., Miss, and Master are common titles, and should be used 
unless the person has a higher title. Messrs. and Misses are prefixed 
to the name of a firm, or to the names of persons collectively, and 
the name is followed by Sirs, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen, or Ladies, as the 
case may be. 

Medical men have the titles Dr. and M.D. Legal gentlemen, art- 
ists, and sometimes others of high social standing, have the title Esq. 
But the title Esq. has so completely lost all meaning in this country 
that persons of good taste are wholly ceasing to use it: thus, "Mr. 
John Smith," not "John Smith, Esq." [JSp Be careful never to use 
the form "Mr. John Smith, Esq." Military men have the titles Gen., 
Maj.-Gen., Col., Capt., etc., according to rank. Graduates of colleges 
have some academic title, as A.B., A.M., etc. Clergymen have the 
titles Rev., Rev. Dr., and, if bishops, that of Rt. Rev. Hon. is the 
proper title for judges, congressmen, state senators, mayors of cit- 
ies, heads of government departments, and others of similar rank ; 
and His Excellency, for the Governor of any State, or an ambassador 
of the United States. The President may be addressed His Excel- 
lency, but strict etiquette prescribes the form as included in the fol- 
lowing models. 



58 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

(i.) Heading or Date. 

Cambridge, Mass., Feb. 3, 1873. 

(2.) Address.* 

Mr. Jai?ies F. Hammond, 

421 Broadway, N. Y. 

(3.) Introduction. 

Dear Sir, — (4-) Body. 

In reply to your letter of the lotli itist., I beg 
to say that I most cheerfully accede to your very reaso?iable 

request, etC. (5-) Subscription. 

Yours respectfully, 

Henry H. Adams. 



96 Pearl St., New York, 
July 27, 1872. 
Messrs. Nichols &> Hall, 

32 Bromf 'eld St., Boston. 
Dear Sirs, — 

/ am, gentlemen, 

Respectfully yours, 

David B. Smith, Jr. 



To the Board of Education, 
Chicago, III. 

Gentlemen, — 



(1.) 



Very respectfully, 

Edward Evans. 



(1) 
Dear Madam, — 

Sincerely yours, 

Henry Varnum. 
Miss Amelia D. Cook, 

18 Pe?nberto?i Square, Boston. 

* The address inside the letter should be identical with the super- 
scription upon the envelope, and it may be put either before the in- 
troduction or at the bottom of the letter. 



LETTER- WRITING. 59 

(i) 

Mr. President^ — 

I have the honor to be, Sir, 

Your obedient servant, 

Timothy L. Trusty. 
To the President, 

Executive Mansion, 

Washington, D. C. 



(3.) 
My dear Friend, — 

(s.) 
Yours truly, 

Isaac H. Ha?nlin. 
Dear Sister Mary, — 

Your affectionate brother, 

William. 
My dear Mr. Brow?i, — 

Most truly yours, 

Alexander Knox. 
My dear Sir, — 

Yours, as ever, 

Horace Mann. 

Exercise 28. 

1. Write a letter to your teacher narrating your "Experi- 
ences during your last vacation." 

2. Write and tell your duties at school — your amusenienfs or 
recreations — your walks — books — thoughts or observations. 

3. Write and tell about a visit to a museum or public gar- 
den — the objects of interest, etc. 

4. Write about the days of your childhood— your earliest 
recollections — your first days at school — your impressions — 
your ideas about that period of your life. 

5. Tell about the book you are reading — the name — the 
subject — the style — the information — your opinion of it — any 
other works by the same author. 

6. Write and tell about an evening party — the number — the 
amusements — the music — the pleasures of social intercourse. 

7. Write the results of the last examination — whether you 
were promoted — what studies you are pursuing with most in- 
terest, etc. 



60 



SCnOOL COMPOSITION. 



B. 

Newspaper Paragraphs. 

On the following heads write paragraphs such as you read in 
the " locals " of the newspapers : 

Runaway.— A horse attached to John Gilpin's beer wagon 



A Fire. — Late last night our quiet town was start 
offire ...... 



cd by an alarm 



Presbyterian Sociable. — The Ladies' Sociable connected with 
the Presbyterian Church met . 



A New School-house.— To-day the laying of the 
the Lincoln School in this city will take place 



Railroad Accident.— Yesterday as the cars were 
the Broad Street Station 



Married.*— 



comer-stone of 



starting from 



Business Composition. 

Boston, Oct. 17, 1872. 
Mr. Henry L. Stone, 

Bought of George S. Tiiompson & Co. 

48 yds. Muslin, at .22 $10.46 

12 " Drilling, " .18 2.10 

20 " French Chintz, " .40 8.00 

1 doz. Spools Thread, " .37 37 



§20.99 
Received Payment, 

Geo. S. TnoMPsoN & Co. 



* There is but one proper way of making this announcement, and 
it is nearly always wrong in the newspapers 



business composition. 61 

San Francisco, Nov. 1, 1872. 
Mr. Edward Edson, 

To Benjamin II. Fenton, Dr. 
To 10 lbs. Java Coffee, at .40 $4.00 

" 5 " Green Tea, " 1.20 G.00 

"12 " Brown Sugar, " .14 1.68 

" 4 gals. Molasses, " .37^ i.50 



$18.13 
Received Payment, 

Benj. H. Fenton, 
per Fred. C. Dow. 

Exercise 29. 

Mcike out the Mils for the following articles and receipt them: 

1. Henry Dixon bought, Feb. 3d, 1873, of Peter Brown & Co., 12 
lbs. of sugar, at 10 cts. ; 8 lbs. of coffee, at 45 cts. ; 4 lbs. of tea, at 75 
cts. 

2. Jameson & Son sold, April Gtb, 1873, to Richard Roby, 2 doz. 
men's black beaver hats, at $4 apiece ; 6 doz. boys' drab hats, at Si. 50 
apiece ; | doz. silk umbrellas, at $4.50 ; \ doz. leather satchels, at $3.50. 

3. Make out a bill for labor ; for articles purchased at a hardware 
store; boot and shoe store; book-store; dry goods store; grocery 
store ; lumber yard, etc. 

receipt for rent. 

$309^. New York, May 15, 1873. 

Received of Messrs. Harper & Brothers, Three Hundred Nine 
and ^Sy Dollars, in full for rent of store No. 20 Canal St., to 
Sept. 1, 1873. 

Williamson & Richardson, 

per Jas. H. Johnson. 

RECEIPT rN FULL OF ALL DEMANDS. 

$500^. Cambridge, Oct. 15, 1872. 

Received of Root. H. Jenldns, Five Hundred and ^j Dollars, in 
full of cdl demands. 

Geo. H. Powell. 

Exercise 30. 

Maize out receipts as above : 

1. Henry A. Nichols receives, March 3d, 1S73, of Arthur A. An- 
drews, $840.25 on account. Make out the receipt. 

2. Geo. R. Stone, of Cambridge, this day gives Henry Gilbert $125, 
in full for one quarter's rent of house, No. 10 Elm St. Make out the 

receipt. 



G2 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

3. Make out a receipt for the rent of a house ; for services rendered ; 
for interest on a note to date ; for money received on account ; in set- 
tlement of an account to date ; for investment, etc. 

ORDER FOR GOODS. 

$500. Cambridge, August 9, 1873. 

Edw. H. Hamlin will phase deliver to Queen & Valentine goods 
to the amount of Five Hundred Dollars, and charge the same to 

William A. Stewart. 

ORDER FOR MONEY. 

$33. Boston, Feb. 19, 1873. 

Messrs. Brown & Hooker. 

Gentlemen, — Please pay to Thomas Andrews, or order, 
Thirty-three Dollars, due on my account, and oblige, 

Yours respectfully, 

Henry W. WilTcins. 

EANK CHECK. 

No. 27. Chicago, Nov. 3, 1872. 

First National Bank, 

Pay to Wm. H. BowJcer, or order, Sixty-nine and -fifc Dollars. 

$69-^. Samuel Wallace. 

Exercise 31. 
Make out the following orders in duefojin, supplying dates: 

1. Carter Brothers give to "Wm. II. Brown an order for 10 barrels 
of flour, Genesee Extra, on Robt. L. Fuller. 

2. Lewis Clarke gives Stephen Dennison an order on Brown, Lewis, 
& Co., for $2000. 

3. Robt. Fulton aives to Hiram Day a check on Charles River Na- 
tional Bank for $1000. 

4. Order somebody to pay money to somebody, or to deliver goods 
to somebody, and charge to your account, or to the account of some- 
body else. 

PROMISSORY NOTE PAYABLE TO ORDER. 

$300. Richmond, Aug. 8, 1872. 

Ninety days after date, for value received, I promise to pay 
James Dickerman, or order, Three Hundred Dollars. 

Henry O. Graham. 

PROMISSORY NOTE PAYABLE TO BEARER. 

$192^. Cincinnati, May 20, 1873. 

On or before April 20, 1874, for value received, I promise to 
pay Pdchard Howe, en' bearer, One Hundred Ninety-tico and ^t 
Dollars. 

James W. Ward. 



BUSINESS COMPOSITION. 63 



JOINT AND SEVEEAL NOTE. 

$3061^. Boston, Sept. 4, 18T3. 

On demand, for value received, we jointly and severally promise 
to pay Walter Wheeler, oi* order, Three, Thousand Sixty-one and 
-ffij Dollars, with interest at 7 per cent. 

Ward, Wood & Co. 

Exercise 32. 
Write out the following acc&rding to the models: 

1. John Scott, of Cambridge, owes Thomas Hooker $400, for which 
he gives his note, payable to him, or to his order, in 4 months from 
March 3d, 1873. Write the note. 

2. On or before the 10th of Oct., 1873, Stephen Morse, Jr., of Bos- 
ton, promises to pay to William Stickney, or bearer, $75.75. Write 
the note, and date it April 10th, 1873. 

3. Write a note, drawn by Henry S. Harrington, of Boston, in favor 
of Francis Raymond & Co., for $500, payable on demand, with inter- 
est at 7^ per cent. Date the note Feb. 16, 1871, and record- in due 
form the following indorsements: June 1, 1871, $1.50; Sept. 13, 1872, 
$200. 

4. John Smith, of Peoria, this day promises to pay to William 
Stone, or order, $400, three months after date. Write the note. 

D. 

Write stories from the following heads: 

1. Columbus and the Egg : 

The cardinal — the banquet — the courtier — the envy — the detrac- 
tion — the egg— the challenge— the attempts— the failures— the 
accomplishment— the application. 

2. TrrE Charter Oak : 

The tyrant Andros — visit to Hartford — his object — the meeting — 
the precious document — sudden darkness — the document gone 
— Captain Wordsworth — the secreting in the Charter Oak — when 
brought forth. 

3. The Old Man and the Bundle of Sticks : 

The sons— the disagreement— the death-bed— the meeting— the 
advice — the bundle — the command — the failure — the single 
stick — the moral. 

4. " Don't Give up the Ship I" 

Challenge of the British ship Shannon— the brief fight— the dread- 
ful slaughter— the surrender— Lawrence's memorable words. 



64 scnooL COMPOSITION. 

E. 

Write historical narratives from tJie following outlines: 

1. Growth op our Country since the Revolution : 

Extent of territory at the close of the Revolutionary War— com- 
pare with present extent — how the chief additions were made: 
by purchase from France, Spain, by Mexican "War— population 
then and now— number of States compared— smallncss of com- 
merce and manufactures then contrasted with great develop- 
ment now— what our forefathers did not have : railroads, steam- 
ships, telegraphs, etc. 

2. Causes of the American Revolution : 

Deepest cause, anti-monarchical character of American institu- 
tions, ideas, and habits — by their very circumstances Americans 
were trained in self-government — colonies would have left the 
mother -country under any circumstances — the circumstances 
that arose to hasten the separation, what were they ? 

F. 
Write short biographical sketches from the following outlines : 

1. George Washington: 

Founder of the Republic of the United States— born at Bridge's 
Creek, Va., 1732— education, simple and meagre — early taste for 
military life — becomes public suiweyor to Lord Fairfax — adju- 
tant-general of the Virginia militia — encroachments of the 
French — his first campaign — campaign under Braddock— mar- 
ries and settles at Mount Vernon — outbreak of the Revolution 
—appointed commander-in-chief 1775— (two or three general 
sentences about Washington's conduct during the war) — elect- 
ed first President — re-elected — dies — his character: simple, 
truthful, sincere, patriotic— patient, persevering, disinterested 
— his influence on the young republic. 

2. Sir "Walter Raleigh: 

Birthplace— education— his first voyage— other employments— 
his appearance at the court of Elizabeth— his accomplishments 
— anecdote of his readiness and tact — the queen and the velvet 
cloak — his promotions and rewards — his next voyage to Ameri- 
ca — the importation of tobacco and potatoes into England— the 
colony of Virginia— his arrest for treason, and imprisonment in 
the Tower— his release after thirteen years— his expedition to 
the Oronoco, and its object— circumstances that led to his exe- 
cution—his character, moral and intellectual. 



PART IV. 

STYLE; OR, HOW TO WRITE GOOD ENGLISH. 



87. The manner in which thoughts are expressed constitutes 
Style. 

*#* " Style " is derived from the Latin styhts — the name of the in- 
strument with which the Romans wrote. The change by which the 
word, from designating the instrument, came to denote the use made 
of it, is similar to the transformation in the meaning of the English 
word "pen." Thus, "Swift wields a caustic pen" = his manner of 
writing (£. e., his " style ") is caustic. 

88. The excellence of a piece of writing depends primarily 
upon that of its separate sentences. Now, the excellence of a 
sentence depends upon two things : 

(1.) Language, or the choice of words. 
(2.) Construction, or the arrangement of the parts of a sen- 
tence. 



CHAPTER I. 

CHOICE OF WORDS. 



89. First Requisite. — Accuracy in the Use of Words. — 
Accuracy is that quality of language which consists in using 
the "right word in the right place." It is the most important 
of all the qualities of language, and claims the first attention. 

Note. — Accuracy in the use of words can not he acquired in a 
few easy lessons. All that can he done is to put scholars in 
the way of thinking about the xoorcls they employ ; and this habit, 
once gained, will gradually bring about correctness in the use 
of language. 

Illustration. 

1. There never was such a quantity of animals at any cattle- 
snow. 

A " quantity" means a single mass, and hence this term can not be 
used to denote many different animals. It should be, "There never 
were so many;" or, " There never was such a number," etc. 



66 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

2. The attempt was found to be impracticable. 

An "attempt" may be unsuccessful, or futile; but as an attempt 
implies some effort made, it can not be said to be "impracticable," 
which means impossible of doing. 

3. I have persuaded him that he is wrong. 

We persuade a person to do something, not to believe something. 
It should be, "I have convinced him that he is wrong." 

Exercise 33. 

Substitute terms of correct signification for the Italicized 
Words : 

1. A child is educated in the grammar of a language, and instructed 
to speak it correctly. 

2. He spoke most contemptibly of the man. 

3. The veracity of the statement was called in question. 

4. His apparent [evident] guilt justified his friends in disowning 
him. 

5. I do not want any cranberries. 

6. By the observance of the habits of the lower animals we may learn 
many interesting facts. 

90. Be careful in the use of Prepositions, Conjunctions, 
Auxiliaries, and other Particles. 

Illustrations. 

1. I find no difficulty of keeping up with my class. 
This should be, "in keeping," etc. 

2. The sultry day was followed with a heavy storm. 
Should be, "followed fry," etc. 

3. The following facts may, or have been, given as reasons 
on the other side. 

There is an improper ellipsis of the word be after may. The omis- 
sion is made under a confused impression that been in have been ap- 
plies also to the auxiliary may ; but we can not say may been. Hence, 
in such cases, make no ellipsis of a part of a compound tense when 
confusion would arise from the omission. The sentence should be, 
" The following facts may be, or have been given," etc. 

Exercise 34. 
In the following sentences correct the wrongly-used Particles: 

1. Poetry has the same aim with Christianity. 

2. Scarcely had he uttered the fatal word, than the fairy disap- 
peared. 

3. We should always be ready to assist such poor persons wJio are 
unable to obtain a livelihood. 



CHOICE OF WORDS. 67 

4. I find great difficulty of -writing now. 

5. The Italian universities were forced to send for their professors 
from Spain and France. 

6. He drew a different conclusion from the subject than I did. 

7. Favors are not always bestowed to the most deserving. 

Misused Words. 

91. There are in current use many words employed in a 
sense that does not properly belong to them. A few of these 
are here given : they should be carefully noted, and their mis- 
use avoided. 

Aggravate for irritate, as "He aggravates me by his impu- 
dence." 

Allude for refer. To allude means to hint at in an indirect 

way. 
Balance for remainder ; as, " The balance of the people went 

home." 

Calculate for design or intend, or as an equivalent to likely, apt; 

as, " Sensational newspapers are calculated to injure 
the morals of the young ;" they are not " calculated " 
to do so ; but they are certainly likely to do so. 

Couple for two; as, "A couple of ladies fell upon the ice 

yesterday." A "couple" means properly tivo that 
are coupled. 

Demean for debase; as, " I would not demean myself by doing 

so." To demean means to behave in any waj 7 , and 
has no connection with the term mean. 

Emblem for motto, sentiment, or meaning ; generally applied to 

flowers. " The emblem of this flower is, '/ live for 
thee. 1 " In this case the flower itself is the emblem: 
"Hive for thee' 1 '' is the meaning given to it. 

Expect for suppose, or think; as, " I expect you had a pretty 

hard time of it yesterday," for I suppose or I think 
you had, etc. Expect refers only to that which is to 
come. 

Inaugurate for begin, or set up. To inaugurate is to induct into 

office with solemn ceremonies ; thus we speak of 
the President's being inaugurated. But we can not 
"inaugurate" a thing. 

Married often wrongly used in announcements; as, "Har- 
ried — John Smith to Mary Jones." It should be 
"Mary Jones to John Smith," as, properly speak- 
ing, it is the woman that is married (French mari, a 
husband) to a man. 

Name for mentioned ; as, " I never named the matter to any 

one." 
Predicated. . . .for founded, or based ; as, " This opinion is predicated 

on the plainest teachings of common sense," mean- 

ing founded on, etc. 



G8 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

Witness for see; as, " This is the most splendid bay I ever 

witnessed." We may witness an act at the perform- 
ance of which we are present, but we can not wit- 
ness a thing. 

92. Second Requisite. — Simplicity of Words. — We should 
ordinarily avoid all such words as require persons to consult a 
dictionary, provided simpler and easier words can be found to 
express the meaning. We should also avoid pompous expres- 
sions and high-flown words and phrases, because the use of 
these is always a sign either of /^(/'-learning, or of vulgar taste. 

"Oh," said a charming and highly-cultivated woman, speaking in 
my hearing of one of her own sex of inferior breeding and position, 
but who was making literary pretensions — "Oh, save me from talking 
with that woman ! If you ask her to come and see you, she never 
says she's sorry she canH come, but that she regrets that the multiplicity 
of her engagements precludes her from accepting your polite invitation."* 

Srip 35 Remember that large words will not increase the size 
of small thoughts. 

StMed m^mMfomd in many M { . hd;l £ Vh 

J\ ewspapters. w j j 

An individual was precipitated = A man fell. 

They called into requisition the = Th t f tl d t 

services of the physician •> 

Hisspiritquitteditseartlilyliiibi- _ »t. j..j 

tation ~ X1C Qltu - 

A menoed to SSf*" "" = A •-* fl '« »«*• •*■ 

A vast concourse of citizens as- 
sembled to behold the specta- = A great crowd came to sec. 
cle 

The conflagration extended its _ T1 fi mread 

devastating career ~ ^ be me spread. 

The progress of the devouring _ T] fi M f , t , 

element could not be arrested ~ *be me could not De got umlci. 

One of those omnipresent char- 
acters who, as if in pursuance 

of some previous arrangement, _ » bv-stander advised 
are certain to be encountered ~ A b ^ slanaei MVlBett. 
when an accident occurs, ven- 
tured the suggestion 

However, the edifice was total- 
ly consumed, notwithstanding B t u , b d t tl 
the most energetic efforts of .,,.„,„, V ;., r«7« . ^.r n V ,V ♦! 
those noble men who on Bneh ground, in spite of all that the 
tnose noDie nun mho, on sucii firemen could do.t 
occasions, rush to the call of *.»»««» u^. 
duty 

* "Words and their Uses," by R. Grant White. 
+ BonneH's "Manual of Composition." 



CHOICE OF WOEDS. 69 

Exercise 35. 
Translate the following into simple, natural English : 

1. There are some youthful personages whom it always delights 
you to accompan} 7 . 

2. There are others, the very aspect of whose facial features super- 
induces disagreeable emotions. 

3. Mary was the possessor of a diminutive specimen of the sheep 
species. 

4. Your uncle was evidently laboring under some hallucination. 

5. At the present moment I retire to slumber : I offer up my peti- 
tions to the Lord to preserve my spiritual part in safety; but should 
I quit this earthly sphere ere I awake, I beseech Him to receive my 
soul. 

6. Ceteris paribus, when a Saxon and a Latin word offer themselves, 
we should choose the Saxon. 

7. Deity is my pastor. I shall not be indigent. He maketh me to 
recumb on the verdant lawns; he leadeth ine beside the unrippled 
liquidities ; he reinstalleth my spirits, and conducteth me in the ave- 
nues of rectitude, for the celebrity of his appellations. 

93. Thied Requisite. — Conciseness, or Brevity of Lan- 
guage. — Conciseness consists in using the smallest number of 
words necessary for the complete expression of a thought. The 
following will be found a useful general rule of conciseness : Go 
critically over what you have written, and strike out every 
word, phrase, and clause which it is found will leave the sen- 
tence neither less clear nor less forcible than it is without them. 

"It is an invariable maxim," says Campbell, "that words which 
add nothing to the sense or to the 'clearness must diminish the force 
of the expression." 

94. This quality of good writing is violated in three ways : 
(1.) By Redundancy, that is, the addition of words which 

the sense does not require. 

(2.) By Tautology, that is, the repetition of the same idea in 
different words. 

(3.) By Circumlocution, that is, a roundabout, diffuse, or 
" long-winded" way of expressing a thought. 

Examples of Redundancy. 

1. Every man on the face oftlie earth has duties to perform. 

The italicized phrase is quite superfluous, as " every man " that has 
"duties to perform" may safely be supposed to be "on the face of 
the earth." 

2. He appears to enjoy the universal esteem of all men. 

The "esteem of all men" is universal esteem; hence that adjective 
is unnecessary. 



70 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. * 

3. I go ; but I return again. 

The word again is redundant, as the word " return" means to come 
again. 

Exercise 36. 
Remove the Redundancies in these sentences : 

1. Another old veteran has departed. 

2. Thought and language act and react mutually upon each other. 

3. Emma writes very well for a new beginner. 

4. The time for learning is in the period of youth. 

5. Whenever I call, he always inquires for you. 

6. The ocean is the great reservoir for receiving the waters of 
rivers. 

7. The world is fitly compared to a stage, and its inhabitants to the 
actors who perform their parts. 

Examples op Tautology. 

1. The whole nation applauded his magnanimity and great- 
ness of mind. 

"Greatness of mind" is simply a translation of "magnanimity;" 
hence the one or the other of the expressions is unnecessary. The 
repetition of the idea not only adds nothing to the thought, but it 
also detracts from the clearness. 

2. The effects and consequence of such corruption and degen- 
eracy are deplorable and lamentable. 

This sentence presents three instances of tautology. How much 
better would it be thus: "The effects of such corruption are de- 
plorable." 

Exercise 37. 

Remove the Tautological e.rpressio)is : 

1. I will give you my advice and counsel gratis, and charge you 
nothing. 

2. It was on a calm and tranquil night that we sailed down the 
river. 

3. Our intercourse was always and invariably friendly and amicable 
until he married and became the husband of a wile. 

4. I think Joseph must take especial and particular pains with his 
writing. 

5. There is a simple and easy way of dealing with such chances and 
accidents. 

0. Hence he must necessarily, therefore, be in error. 

Example of Circumlocution. 

"Pope professed to have learned his poetry from Dryden, 
whom, whenever an opportunity presented itself he praised 



CHOICE OF WORDS. 71 

through the whole period of his existence with a liberality which 
never varied; and perhaps his character may receive some illus- 
tration, if a comparison oe instituted between him and the man 
whose pupil he was." 

Which may be thus condensed : 

" Pope professed himself the pupil of Dryden, whom, on every 
opportunity, he praised through his whole life with unvaried lib- 
erality ; and perhaps his character may oe illustrated ~by compar- 
ing him with his master." 

*#* The remedy for circumlocution consists, not in omission of 
parts, but in recasting the whole in terser language. It may be ob- 
served that in the remodeling of the sentence just given the conden- 
sation has been effected mainly by the substitution of phrases in the 
place of clauses. Thus, "whenever an opportunity presented itself" 
=zon every opportunity ; "which never varied " = unvaried; "if a com- 
parison be instituted " = &?/ comparing, etc. 

95. Fourth Requisite. — Purity of Words. — This quality 
requires that the words we employ shall be good, reputable 
English. It does not mean that we are prohibited from using 
familiar or colloquial forms of expression ; but only that we 
shall avoid slang. With regard to the Fourth Requisite two 
rules may be given : 

(1.) Aim at purity of language, without being a purist in 
language. (A "purist" is one who affects excessive nicety in 
the choice of words.) 

(2.) There is a vocabulary that belongs to the street-corner, 
the circus, and the bar-room : avoid that altogether. 



CHAPTER II. 

CONSTRUCTION. 



96. As regards the arrangement of its parts, there are three 
qualities which a sentence should possess : 1. Unity; 2. Clear- 
ness; 3. Strength. 

1. Unity. 

97. Unity is that property in a sentence which keeps all its 
parts ^ in connection with, and logically subordinate to, the 
principal assertion. 

98. The rules for preserving the unity of a sentence arc as 
follows : 



72 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

Rule I. — The subject should be changed as little as pos- 
sible in the course of the sentence. 

There is commonly, in every sentence, the name of some person or 
thing, which is the governing word ; this should be continued, if pos- 
sible, from the beginning tothe end of it. 

Illustration. 

After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, -where I 
was welcomed by all my friends, who received me with the 
greatest kindness. 

Criticism. — Here, from the repeated changing of the subject («*, 7, 
they, who), the sense of connection is almost lost. Alter thus, so as 
to preserve the same subject or principal word throughout, and 
thereby the unity of the sentence: "After we came to anchor, I was 
put on shore, where I was welcomed by all my friends, and received 
with the greatest kindness." 

Exercise 36. 

Reconstruct the following sentences, so as to attain unity of 
subject : 

1. The march of the Greeks was through an uncultivated country, 
whose savage inhabitants fared hardly, having no other riches than a, 
breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and unsavory, by reason of 
their continual feeding upon sea-fish. 

2. Ih summer the reindeer feed on various kinds of plants, and seek 
the highest hills to avoid the gadfly, which at that period deposits its 
eggs in their skin, from which cause many of them die. 

99. Rule II. — Ideas that have but little connection 
should be expressed in separate sentences, and not crowd- 
ed into one. 

Note.— The great danger of violating this rule is in writing long 
compound sentences. As a simple sentence contains only one 
proposition, its unity is secured by its very form. The com- 
plex sentence also contains but one leading proposition, the 
subordinate propositions (clauses) being generally interwoven 
with the main statement; hence it is not difficult to preserve 
unity in the complex sentence. But the compound sentence 
contains two, and may contain many principal propositions. 
If there be a close logical connection between the propositions 
they should be united into one compound sentence; but if 
there be no inherent connection, the propositions should be 
stated as separate sentences. 

Illustration. 

The Britons, daily harassed by t)ic Picts, were forced to 
call in the Saxons for their defense, who, after having repelled 
the invaders, turned their arms against the Britons themselves, 
drove them into the most remote and mountainous parts of 



UNITY. 73 

the kingdom, and reduced the greater part of the island under 
their dominion, so that in the course of a century and a half 
the country became almost wholly Saxon in customs, religion, 
and language. 

Criticism. — In this sentence different events and facts without any 
real connection are grouped together in such a way as to produce a 
very confused impression. It should he broken up into at least three 
sentences, thus : The Britons, daily harassed by the Picts, were forced 
to call in the Saxons for their defense. These, after having repelled 
the invaders, turned their arms against the Britons themselves, driv- 
ing them into the most remote and mountainous parts of the king- 
dom, and reducing the greater part of the island under their domin- 
ion. The result was that, in the course of a century and a half, the 
country became almost wholly Saxon in customs, religion, and lan- 
guage. 

Exercise 37. 

Improve the f allotting sentences oy removing the connectives, and 
oreaking up each sentence into two or more distinct propositions : 

1. There are a great many different kinds of trees, some furnishing 
us with wood forcommon purposes, such as flooring for our houses, 
and frames for the windows ; while others afford a more beautiful 
wood, which, when polished, is made into tables and chairs, and vari- 
ous articles of furniture. 

2. At last the coach stopped, and the driver, opening the door, told 
us to get out ; which we did, and found ourselves in front of a large 
tavern, whose bright and ruddy windows told of the blazing fires 
within ; which, together with the kind welcome of the hostess, and 
the bounteous supper that smoked upon the board, soon made us for- 
get the hardships of the long, cold ride. 

3. This great and good man died on the 17th of September, 1683, 
leaving behind him the memory of many noble actions, and a numer- 
ous family, of whom three were sons; one of them, George, the eld- 
est, heir to his father's virtues, as well as to his principal estates in 
Cumberland, where most of his father's property was situate, and 
shortly afterward elected member for the county, which had for sev- 
eral generations returned this family to serve in Parliament. 

100. Rule III. — Long parentheses in the middle of a sen- 
tence should be avoided, as interfering -with unity of im- 
pression 

Illustration. 

The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Austria (Vhich were 
discovered in 1797, by a peasant, who, catching some water 
from a spring, found the tub so heavy that he could not move 
it, and the bottom covered with a shining substance which 
turned out to be mercury), yield, every year, over three hun- 
dred thousand pounds of that valuable metal. 

Criticism. — Every scholar will readily sec how destructive to unity 
is the long parenthesis. To remedy the fault, remove the matter from 
the parenthesis, and make it a separate sentence. 
4 



74 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

2. Clearness. 

101. Clearness requires that the parts of a sentence — words, 
phrases, clauses — should be so arranged as to leave no possi- 
bility of doubt as to the writer's meaning. 

*** Clearness of style should be the first consideration with the 
young composer. It may indeed seem that several of the rules for 
brevity interfere with the rules for clearness. But it is better, at all 
events for beginners, to aim not so much at being brief or forcible, 
as at being clear. Horace says, " While I take pains to be brief, 1 fall 
into obscurity." 

102. The faults opposed to clearness are two — 
Obscurity, which leaves us wholly in doubt as to what the 

meaning is. 

Ambiguity, which leaves us in doubt as to which of two 
meanings is the one intended. 

103. It is chiefly through the wrong placing of words, 
phrases, or clauses, that clearness is lost. In the English lan- 
guage, which is very deficient in inflections to mark the gram- 
matical relations of words, position is a matter of prime im- 
portance. 

104. Rule III. — Words, phrases, and clauses that are 
closely related, should be placed as near to each other as 
possible, that their mutual relation may clearly appear. 

105. This rule requires particular attention to the placing 
of adverbs, pronouns, and other connecting or representative 
words. 

Illustrations. 

1. Charlemagne patronized not only learned men, but also 
established several educational institutions. 

Criticism. — The position of not only before "learned men" sug- 
gests to the mind a contrast between " learned men " and some oth- 
er kind of men ; but when we read the sentence through we dis- 
cover that the writer's intention was to make an antithesis between 
Charlemagne's patronizing learned men, and cstablisJiing educational in- 
stitutions. " The arrangement to make this meaning clear is, "Charle- 
magne not only patronized learned men, but," etc. 

2. Rome once more ruled over the prostrate nations ly the 
power of superstition. 

Criticism.— This sentence is ambiguous, because it mny mean, (1) 
that Rome had at a former time ruled over the nations " by the pow- 
er of superstition," and now ruled over them a second time by the 
same power; (2) that she had formerly ruled over them by some oth- 
er power, and now did so "by the power of superstition." The lat- 
ter meaning is probably the one intended, and to bring this out the 
sentence should be arranged as follows : " Rome, by the power of su- 
perstition, once more ruled over the prostrate nations." 



CLEARNESS. 75 

3. I shall grant what you ask readily. 

Criticism. — By this arrangement the adverb "readily" is made to 
limit ask: it should limit grant, and hence should be, " I shall readily 
grant what you ask." 

4. The following lines were written by one who, for more 
than ten years, had been confined in the penitentiary, for his 
own diversion. 

Criticism. — The long confinement did not bring much grammatical 
clearness to the writer. As the sentence stands, it states that he was 
confined in the penitentiary "for his own diversion," which is not a 
promising form of amusement. The phrase, "for his own diversion," 
is of course intended to qualify were written, and hence should be 
placed next to that verb, thus : " The following lines were written, 
for his own diversion, by one who," etc. 

Exercise 38. 
In the following sentences, 'place the Italicized Words in 
such positions as will maize the real meaning clear : 

1. The dexterity of the Chinese juggler almost appears miraculous. 

2. A tear is due, at least, to the fallen brave. 

3. They laid the blame only on us. 

4. We also get salt from the ocean, which is very useful to man. 

5. It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of 
life by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us against. 

6. There is a cavern in the island of Hoonga, which can only be 
entered by diving into the sea. 

7. They seemed to be nearly dressed alike. 

106. Obscurity and ambiguity frequently arise from the 
omission of some necessary word. On this point the follow- 
ing directions should be observed : 

107. Repeat the Subject when the omission would cause 
ambiguity or obscurity. The omission is particularly likely 
to cause obscurity after a Relative standing as Subject. Thus, 

" He professes to be helping the nation, which in reality is 
suffering from his flattery, and (he ? or it ?) will not permit any 
one else to give it advice." 

The relative should be repeated when it is the subject of several 
verbs. "All the pleasing illusions xohich made power gentle and obe- 
dience liberal, which harmonized the different shades of"life, and which, 
by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the sentiments that 
beautify and soften private society, are to be dissolved by this new 
conquering empire of light and reason." 

108. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunc- 
tion, especially if a Verb and an Object also intervene. 

Illustration. 
He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that helped 



76 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

all his companions when he was poor and uninfluential, and 
(to) John Smith in particular. 

CHlicism. — Here omit to, and the meaning may be "that helped all 
his companions, and John Smith in particular." The intervention 
of the verb and object, "helped" and "companions," causes this am- 
biguity. 

109. When several subordinate Verbs are connected 
■with the principal proposition by the same Conjunction, 
unless the Verbs are very near together, the Conjunction 
should be repeated.* 

Illustrations. 

1. When we look back upon the havoc that two hundred 
years have made in the ranks of our national authors — and, 
above all, {when) we refer their rapid disappearance to the 
quick succession of new Competitors — we can not help being 
dismayed at the prospect that lies before the writers of the 
present day. 

Here omit "when," and we at once substitute a parenthetical state- 
ment for what is really a subordinate clause. 

2. We might say that the Csesars did not persecute the 
Christians; [ ] they only punished men who were charged, 
rightly or wrongly, with burning Rome, and committing the 
foulest abominations in secret assemblies. 

110. Repeat Verbs after the conjunctions "than," "a3," 
etc., when the omission would cause ambiguity. 

Illustrations. 

1. I think he likes me better than you ; i. *., either than you 
like me, or he likes you. 

2. Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as did 
the Spaniard Olivares. 

Omit "did," and you cause ambiguity. 

Exercise 39. 

These sentences are inaccurate, oicing to the impiroper otnission 
of certain terms; supply the ellipsis: 

1. The rich are exposed to many dangers [?] which the poor arc not. 

2. The covering of animals in cold countries is thicker than [?] warm 
ones. 

3. He might have been happy, and [ ] is now fully convinced of it. 

4. Industry has always beenthc way to succeed, and it will so long 
as men are what they are. 

5. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so than knowledge. 

* The repetition of Auxiliary Verbs and Pronominal Adjectives is also 
conducive to clearness. 



77 



3. Strength. 

111. Strength is that property of style which causes a sen- 
tence to produce a forcible and vivid impression. 

112. The first principle of strength is that the most important 
words- should occupy the most prominent places. These are 
the beginning and the end of the sentence. 

113. As the end of a sentence is one of the two emphatic 
places, it is a good general rule not to terminate a sentence 
with an adverb, preposition, or other inconsiderable word. 

*#* This rule should not he too rigidly applied to ordinary famil- 
iar writing, like letters, as it sometimes appears stiff and pedantic to 
go out of the way in order to avoid closing with a particle. We say 
"the man he was talking to," "the freedom we fought for," and it 
is perfectly proper to write such expressions. 

Illustrations. 

1. What a pity it is that even the best should speak to our 
understandings so seldom I 

Here the adverb usurps the prominent place which by right be- 
longs to "understandings." The sentence would be stronger thus : 
" should so seldom speak to our understandings." 

2. This is the gentleman whom I am under obligations to. 
It would be stronger to say, " to whom I am under obligations." 

3. Let us consider the ambitious; and those both in their 
progress to greatness and after the attaining of it. 

This is both weak and inelegant. Say either "after attaining it," 
or " after its attainment." 

Exercise 40. 

Give strength to the following sentences oy improving the 2wsi- 
tion of the Italicized Words : 

1. Such things were not allowed formerly. 

2. It was a practice which no one knew the origin of. 

3. My purpose is to bring the fact that I have stated into promi- 
nence. 

4. Internal commerce has been greatly increased since the intro- 
duction into the country of railroads. 

5. Scott is an author whom every one is delighted wUh. 

6. But the design succeeded; he betrayed the city, and was made 
governor of it. 

114. Many of those ways of changing a sentence that 
have already been treated of under "Variety of Expres- 
sion," add force and emphasis to a sentence. Thus, 

By Inversion ; as, " Silver and gold have I none " (instead of I have no 
silver and gold). 



78 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

Ey Interrogation ; as, "Who does not hope to live long?" (instead 
of, "We all hope to live long.") 

By Exclamation; as, "What a piece of work is man!" (instead of, 
" Man is a wonderful piece of work.") 

115. It often adds strength to a sentence to put it into 
the form of a period. 

116. A Period is a sentence in which the complete sense is 
susjDended until the close. It is contrasted with a loose sen- 
tence, in which the predicate is followed by phrases or clauses 
that are not necessary to the completeness of the sense. 

Illustrations. 

1. Period. — " On the rich and the eloquent, on nobles and 
priests, the Puritans looked down with contempt." 

Loose Sentence. — " The Puritans looked down with contempt 
on the rich | and the eloquent | on nobles | and priests." 

The latter is a loose sentence, because we might pause at any of the 
places marked. Note the superiority of the periodic arrangement. 

2. " We came to our journey's end, | at last, | with no small 
difficulty, | after much fatigue, | through deep roads and bad 
weather." 

This is a loose sentence, since we may pause at any of the places 
marked, and the sense will be complete. 

"At last, with no small difficulty, after much fatigue, through 
deep roads, and bad weather, we came to our journey's end." 

This presents the same sentence in the periodic structure, but the 
massing of all the phrases at the commencement produces an un- 
pleasant effect. The following is better: 

"At last, with no small difficulty, and after much fatigue, 
w T e came, through deep roads and bad weather, to our jour- 
ney's end." 

Exercise 41. 
Change the following loose sentences into periods : 

1. Nothing is valuable in speech farther than it is connected with 
high intellectual and moral endowments when public bodies are to be 
addressed on momentous occasions, when-great interests are at stake 
and strong passions excited. 

2. The wonderful invention of Homer is what principally strikes 
us, on whatever side we contemplate him. 

3. The live thunder leaps far along from peak to peak, among the 
rattling crags. 

4. Heavenly muse that on the secret top of Horeb or of Sinai didst 
inspire that shepherd, who first taught the chosen 6eed, in the beu r in- 
ning, how the heavens and earth rose out of chaos, sing of man's first 
disobedience and the fruit of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste 
brought death into the world and all our woe, with loss of Eden, till 
one greater man restore us, and regain the blissful seat. 



STRENGTH. 79 

117. A sentence is enfeebled by improper repetition of a 
word, or by the recurrence of unpleasing similarity of sound. 

Illustrations. 

1. The few who regarded thein in their true light were re- 
garded as dreamers. 

The repetition of the word regarded has a very unpleasant effect. 

2. In a calm mponlight night the sea is a most beautiful ob- 
ject to see. 

The recurrence of sound (sea and see) is disagreeable to the ear. 

Exercise 42. 

Improve the following sentences by avoiding the repetition of 
words, or of unpleasing similarity of sound : 

1. The writings of Webster are written with great strength and per- 
spicuity. 

2. The same character has characterized their descendants in modern 
times. 

3. Washington was anxious to be relieved from all anxiety in that 
quarter. 

4. To oppose this formidable invasion, the Americans were divided 
into four divisions. 

5. Napoleon's ambition led him to aspire to universal dominion, 
the pursuit of which finally led to his complete overthrow. 

118. The last given rule does not apply to a repetition 
made for some sound rhetorical reason : on the contrary such 
repetition often adds great strength to a sentence. 

Illustrations. 

1. He aspired to the highest — above the people, above the authori- 
ties, above the laws, above his country. 

2. The spirit of religion and the spirit of chivalry concurred to exalt 
his dignity. 

3. By foreign hands thy dying eyes were closed, 
By foreign hands thy decent limbs composed, 
By foreign hands thy humble grave adorned, 

By strangers honored, and by strangers mourned. 

119. The use of particular terms for general terms adds 
strength. This is a most important rule. Instead of, " I have 
neither the necessaries of life, nor the means of procuring them," 
write (if you can with truth), "I have not a crust of bread, nor 
a penny to buy one." 

*#* But in philosophy and science, where the language ought very 
often to be inclusive and brief, general and not particular terms must 
be used. 

120. A statement is stronger when made about an in- 



80 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

dividual object than when made about a class. Thus: 
" What is the splendor of the greatest monarch compared with 
the beauty of a flower f n is less forcible than, "What is the 
splendor of. Solomon compared with the beauty of a daisy f" 

121. The excessive use of Adjectives — a fault to which 
young writers are addicted — is very enfeebling to style. 
fiW^ Never use an adjective unless its meaning adds to the main 
thought of the sentence. 



CHAPTER III. 



FIGURES OF LANGUAGE. 

122. One of the principal means for adding both strength 
and beauty to a sentence is the use of figures of speech. 

123. Figures of speech are certain modes of expression dif- 
ferent from those of ordinary speech. 

124. The four figures of speech most used are- 

1. Simile. 2. Metaphor. 3. Metonymy. 4. Synecdoche. 

125. Simile and Metaphor both express comparison. In 
the Simile, one object is said to rcscmlle another; and some 
sign of comparison (as, like, etc.) stands between them. In the 
Metaphor, an object is spoken of as if it icere another, and no 
sign of comparison is used. Thus : 

1. Simile. — The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. 
2Lctaphor.— The Assyrian wo7/camc down on the fold. 

2. Simile. — He is like a lion in the fight. 
Metaphor. — He is a lion in the fight. 

126. Metonymy is the use of the name of one object to rep- 
resent some related object, "when the relation is not mere re- 
semblance. 

(1.) The effect is sometimes put for the cause; as, G-ray hairs 
[meaning old age] should be respected. 

(2.) The thing containing for the thing contained ; as, He 
drank the fatal cup [meaning the draught in the cup]. 

(3.) The sign for the thing signified ; as, The sceptre [mean- 
ing sovereignty] shall not depart from Judah. 

(4.) The author for his writings ; as, Have you read Milton f 
[Milton's works.] 

127. Synecdoche is the figure which puts a part for the 
whole; as, Consider the lilies [that is, flowers in general], how 
they grow. 



FIGURES OP LANGUAGE. 81 

Exercise 43. 



Underline the words expressing Simile : 

1. Grateful persons resemble fertile fields. 

2. Homer, like the Nile, pours out his riches with a sudden over- 
flow ; Virgil, like a river in its banks, with a constant stream. 

3. My doctrine shall drop as the rain, my speech shall distill as the 
dew, as the small rain upon the tender herb, as the showers upon the 
grass. 

B. 

Compare the following pairs of objects respectively, showing their 
of resemblance : 



1. Food and books. 

2. The troubles of a child and an April shower. 

3. Life and a battle. 

4. Prosperity and sunshine. 

5. Heaven and home. 

C. 

Turn the following metaphoric expressions into plain ones : 

Example.— He bore away the palm. 
Changed.— He obtained the prize. 

1. He bore away the palm. 

2. The clouds of adversity soon pass away. 

3. Virtue is a jewel. 

4. Choate was one of the brightest luminaries of the age. 

5. She shed a flood of tears. 

D. 

Underline the Metonymies, and then change the figures into 
plain language : 

Flee from the bottle = Avoid intoxicating drinks. 

1. Flee from the bottle. 

2. Have you read Irving ? 

3. The country was wasted by the sword. 

4. The stranger praised the eloquence of our pulpit, bar, and senate. 

5. He has a long purse. 

E. 

Underline the Synecdoches, and then convert them into plain 
language : 
There are fifty sail in the harbor = There are fifty ships in the harbor. 

1. There are fifty sail in the harbor. 

2. All hands take hold. 

3. Give us this day our daily bread. 

4. The face of the deep is frozen over. 

5. My roof shall always shelter you. 

4* 



SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 



CHAPTER IV. 

ANALYSIS OP STYLE. 

Note.— The following extracts are given in order to afford the 
pupil practice in the application of the principles already laid 
down. 

128. In regard to the general effect of Style, the questions 
to be asked are : 

1. Is it perspicuous, or intelligible ? 

2. Is it energetic, or impressive ? 

3. Is it graceful, or pleasing ? 

129. In regard to the Language in particular, the questions 
to be considered are : 

1. Is it accurate ? 3. Is it concise? 

2. Is it simple ? 4. Is it pure ? 

130. In regard to the Construction in particular, the ques- 
tions to be asked are : 

1. Does it possess unity ? 3. Is it strong or forcible ? 

2. Is it clear ? 4. Is it harmonious ? 

131. The following extracts may be examined and tested 
by these general questions. But a few special questions are 
appended to each extract, with the view of bringing out its 
particular features. 

I. 

Dryden. (1G31-170L) 

(1) "It may now be expected, that having written the life of an 
historian, I should take occasion to write somewhat eoncerninLC 
history itself; but I think to commend it is unnecessary, for the 
profit and pleasure of that study are both so very obvious, that 
a quick reader will be beforehand with me, and imagine faster 

(2) than I can write. Besides that, the post is taken up already; 
and few authors have traveled this way but who have strewed" it 

(3) with rhetoric as they passed. For my own part, who must con- 
fess it to my shame that I never read any thing but for pleasure, 
it has always been the most delightful entertainment of my life ; 
but they who have employed the study of it as they ought, for 
their instruction, for the regulation of their private manners, ami 
the management of public affairs, must agree with me, that it is 

(4) the most pleasant school of Wisdom. It is a familiarity with 
past ages, and an acquaintance with all the heroes of them : it is, 
if you will pardon the similitude, a prospective glass carrying 
your soul to a vast distance, and taking in the farthest objects 

(5) of antiquity. It informs the understanding by the memory: it 



ANALYSIS OF STYLE. 83 

helps us to judge of what will happen, by showing us the like 
(6) revolutions of former times. For mankind being the same in all 
ages, agitated by the same passions, and moved to action by the 
same interests, nothing can come to pass but some precedent of 
the like nature has already been produced; so that having the 
causes before our eyes we can not easily be deceived in the effects, 
if we have judgment enough but to draw the parallel." 

Questions. 

1. Point out an ellipsis in (1). 

2. What have you to remark upon the expression "will be before- 
hand with me," in (1)? 

3. "Besides that," introducing (2), is clumsy. What connecting 
particle might be substituted for it ? 

4. Point out a grammatical inaccuracy in (2). 

5. "It" occurs four times in (3): What is its correlative in each 
case? Is its meaning in any case equivocal? 

6. Do you notice any inelegance in (4) ? 

7. Sentence (6) is loose: at what point would the period close 

8. Criticise the paragraph as to unity, variety, and continuity, 

9. Remark upon kheharmony of the passage. 

II. 

Johnson. (1709-1784.) 

A (1) "Bossu is of opinion that the poet's first work is to find a 
moral which his fable is afterward to illustrate and establish. 

(2) This seems to have been the process only of Milton : the mor- 
al of other poems is incidental and consequent; in Milton's 

(3) only it is essential and intrinsic. His purpose was the most 
useful and the most arduous, to vindicate the xcays of God to 
man; to show the reasonableness of religion, and the necessi- 
ty of obedience to the divine law. 

B (4) "To convey this moral there must be a fable, a narration 
artfully constructed, so as to excite curiosity and surprise ex- 
Co) pectation. In this part of his work Milton must be confessed 
(6) to have equaled every other poet. He has involved in his 
account of the fall of man the events which preceded and 
those that were to follow it: he has interwoven the whole 
system of theology with such propriety that every part ap- 
pears to be necessary ; and scarcely any recital is wished short- 
er for the sake of quickening the progress of the main action. 

C (7) " The subject of an epic poem is naturally an event of great 

(8) importance. That of Milton is not the destruction of a city, 

(9) the conduct of a colony, or the foundation of an empire. His 
subject is the fate of worlds, the revolutions of heaven and of 
earth ; rebellion against the Supreme King raised by the high- 
est order of created beings ; the overthrow of their host and 
the punishment of their crime; the creation of a new race of 
reasonable creatures; their original happiness and innocence, 
their forfeiture of immortality, and their restoration to hope 
and peace. 

D (10) "Great events can be hastened or retarded only by persons 

(11) of elevated dignit} r . Before the greatness displayed in Milton's 

(12) poem, all other greatness shrinks away. The weakest of his 
agents are the highest and noblest of human beings, the origi- 
nal parents of mankind, with whose actions the efements con- 



84 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

scnted ; on whose rectitude or deviation of will depended the 
state of terrestrial nature, aud the condition of all the future 
inhabitants of the globe." 

Questions. 

1. Show the train of thought which connects these paragraphs with 
one another. Is the connection obvious? 

2. Point out the similarity of the paragraphs, in construction and 
variety of sentence. 

3. What is the difference in meaning between "excite curiosity" 
and "surprise expectation" in (4)? 

4. Point out in (2) an example of antitJiesis and an instance of tau- 
tology, and correct the latter. 

5. Are any words in. (5) and in (12) employed in an unusual sense? 
G. Note the proportion of Classical and of Saxon words. 

7. Are there any figures of language in the passage? 

8. Remark on the harmony of the passage. 

III. 

Gibbon. (1737-1794.) 

(1) "In the vacant space between Persia, Syria, Egypt, and Ethi- 
opia, the Arabian peninsula may be conceived as a triangle of 

(2) spacious but irregular dimensions. From the northern point of 
Beles on the Euphrates, a line of fifteen hundred miles is termi- 
nated by the Straits of Babelmandel and the land of frankincense. 

(3) About half this length may be allowed for the middle breadth, 
from east to west, from Bassora to Suez, from the Persian Gulf 

(-4) to the Red Sea. The sides of the triangle are gradually enlarged, 
and the southern basis presents a front of a thousand miles to 

(5) the Indian Ocean. The entire surface of the peninsula exceeds 
in a fourfold proportion that of Germany or France ; but the far 
greater part has been justly stigmatized with the epithets of the 

(0) stony and the sandy. Even the wilds of Tartary are decked, by 
the hand of nature, with lofty trees and luxuriant herbage; and 
the lonesome traveler derives a sort of comfort and society from 

(7) the presence of vegetable life. But in the dreary waste of Ara- 
bia, a boundless level of sand is intersected by sharp and naked 
mountains; and the face of the desert, without shade or shelter, 

(8) is scorched by the direct and intense rays of a tropical sun. In- 
stead of refreshing breezes, the winds, particularly from the 
south-west, diffuse a noxious and even deadly vapor ; the hillocks 
of sand which they alternately raise and scatter, are compared to 
the billows of the ocean, and whole caravans, whole armies, have 

(9) been lost and buried in the whirlwind. The common benefits of 
water are an object of desire and contest ; and such is the scarci- 
ty of wood, that some art is requisite to preserve and propagate 

(10) the element of. fire. Arabia is destitute of navigable rivers, 
which fertilize the soil, and convey its produce to the adjacent 
regions: the torrents that fall from the hills are imbibed by the 
thirsty earth: the rare and hardy plants, the tamarind or the 
acacia, that strike their roots into the clefts of the rocks, are 
nourished by the dews of the night: a scanty supply of rain is 
collected in cisterns and aqueducts : the wells and springs are 
the secret treasure of the desert; and the pilgrim of Mecca, after 



ANALYSIS OP STYLE. 85 

many a dry and sultry march, is disgusted by the taste of the 
(11) waters, which have rolled over a bed of sulphur or salt. Such is 
the general and genuine picture of the climate of Arabia." 

Questions. 

1. To what kind of composition does this passage belong? 

2. For what purpose is (6) introduced? 

3. What peculiarity is there in the second and third clauses of (10) 
— "which .... regions?" Are they naturally introduced? 

4. Are the sentences generally periodic or loose? What, in this re- 
spect, is the prominent character of the style ? 

5. Do Classical or Saxon words predominate ? 

0. Note instances of circumlocution, or of thoughts unnecessarily 
elaborated. 

IV. 

Bueke. (1730-1797.) 

(1) " It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw the queen of 
France, then the dauphiness, at Versailles ; and surely never 
lighted on this orb, which she hardly seemed to touch, a more 

(2) delightful vision. I saw her just above the horizon, decorating 
and cheering the elevated sphere she just began to move in — 
glittering like the morning star, full of life, and splendor, and 

(3) joy. Oh, what a revolution! and what a heart must I have, to 

(4) contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall ! Little 
did I dream when she added titles of veneration to those of en- 
thusiastic, distant, respectful love, that she should ever be obliged 
to carry the sharp antidote against disgrace concealed in that 
bosom ; little did I dream that I should have lived to see such 
disasters fallen upon her in a nation of gallant men, in a na- 

(5) tion of men of honor and of cavaliers. I thought ten thousand 
swords must have leaped from their scabbards to avenge even a 

(6) look that threatened her with insult. But the age of chivalry is 

(7) gone. That of sophisters, economists, and calculators has suc- 

(8) ceeded ; and the glory of Europe is extinguished forever. Nev- 
er, never more, shall we behold that generous loyalty to rank 
and sex, that proud submission, that dignified obedience, that 
subordination of the. heart which kept alive, even in servitude 

(9) itself, the spirit of an exalted freedom. The unbought grace of 
life, the cheap defense of nations, the nurse of manly sentiment 

(10) and heroic enterprise is gone! It is gone, that sensibility of 
principle, that chastity of honor, which felt a stain like a wound, 
which inspired courage while it mitigated ferocity, which en- 
nobled whatever it touched, and under which vice itself lost half 
its evil, by losing all its grossness." 

Questions. 

1. What sentence marks the transition from admiration to sarcasm ? 
.2. Vfh&t figures are employed in (1) and (2) ? Are they consistent, or 

congruous? 

3. What figure of construction is there in (3)? 

4. What figure is used in (5) ? 

5. What expression in (9) is inconsistent with the lofty sentiment 
of the passage? 

(i. What expression in (10) is epigrammatic f 



86 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

V. 
Lamb. (1775-1831) 

A (1) "Antiquity! thou wondrous charm, what art thou? 

(2) that being nothing, art every thing! When thou wert, 
thou wert not antiquity — then thou wert nothing, but 
hadst a remoter antiquity, as thou calledst it, to look back 
to with blind veneration ; thou thyself being to thyself 

(3) Hat, jejune, modern! What mystery lurks in this retro- 
version ! or what half Januses are we, that can not look 
forward with the same idolatry with which we forever 

(4) revert! The mighty future is as nothing, being every 
thing ! the past is every thing, being nothing! 

B (5) (6) " What were thy dark ages ? Surely the sun rose as 
brightly then as now, and man got him to his work in the 
(7) morning ! Why is it we can never hear mention of them 

without an accompanying feeling, as though a palpable 
obscure had dimmed the face of things, and that our an- 
cestors wandered to and fro groping ! 

C (8) "Above all thy varieties, old Oxenford, what do most 

arride and solace me, are thy repositories of moldering 
learning, thy shelves — 

D (9) (10) " What a place to be in is an old library! It seems as 
though all the souls of all the writers that have bequeath- 
ed their labors to these Bodleiaus were reposing here, as 

(11) in some dormitory or middle state. I do not want to 

(12) handle, to profane the leaves, their winding-sheets. I 

(13) - could as 60on dislodge a shade. I seem to inhale learn- 

ing, walking amidst their foliage; and the odor of their 
old moth-scented coverings is fragrant as the first bloom 
of those sciential apples which grew amidst the happy 
orchard." 

Questions. 

1. Of what figure of language are A and B examples? 

2. Point out the epigram in this paragraph. 

3. Remark on the use of the words "jejune" in (2), " revert" in (3), 
"arride" in (8), and "sciential" in (13). 

4. Point out the example of mixed metaphors in D. 

5. What epithet would best describe the character of Lamb's style V 

VI. 

Macaulay. (1800-1859.) 

(1) " When Sunday the fourth of November dawned, the clifls 
of the Isle of Wight were full in view of the Dutch arma- 

(2) ment. That day was the anniversary both of William's birth 

(3) and of his marriage. Sail was slackened during part of the 
morning ; and divine service was performed on board of the 

(4) ships. In the afternoon and through the night the fleet 

(5) held on its course. Torbay was the place where the Prince 

(6) intended to land. But the morning of Monday the fifth of 

(7) November was hazy. The pilot of the Brill could not dis- 
cern the sea marks^and carried thefiect too far to the west. 

(8) (9) The danger was great. To return in the face of the wind 
(10) (11) was impossible. Plymouth was the next port. But at 



ANALYSIS OP STYLE. 87 

Plymouth a garrison had been posted under the command 

(12) of the Earl ol Bath. The landing might be opposed ; and a 

(13) check might produce serious consequences. There could 
be little doubt, moreover, that by this time the royal fleet 
bad got out of the Thames, and was hastening full sail down 

(14) the channel. Russell saw the whole extent of the peril, and 

(15) exclaimed to Burnet, "You may go to prayers, doctor. All 

(16) is. over." At that moment the wind changed, a soft breeze 
sprang up from the south, the mist dispersed, the sun shone 
forth, and, under the mild light of an autumnal moon, the 
fleet turned back, passed round the lofty cape of Berry Head, 
and rode safe in the harbor of Torbay." 

Questions. 

1. "What is the most noticeable feature in the structure of this par- 
agraph ? "What effect does it produce ? 

2. To what kind of composition does it belong? 

3. Are there any examples of abrupt transition ? 

4. What relation do sentences from (9) to (13) bear to (8) ? 

5. Estimate the proportion of classical and Saxon words. 

6. Is any word or phrase inappropriate ? 

7. What does the greater portion of the paragraph lead the reader 
to expect ? Where does the change come, and with what effect ? 

8. Can the style be characterized as harmonious? 

VII. 

Caklyle. 

A (1} " To this conclusion, then, hast thou come, O hapless Louis ! 

(2) The Son of Sixty Kings is to die on the Scaffold by form of 

(3) Law. Under Sixty Kings this same form of Law, form of So- 
ciety, has been fashioning itself together these thousand years ; 
and has become, one way and another, a most strange Machine. 

(4) Surely, if needM, it is also frightful, this Machine ; dead, blind ; 
not what it should be; which, with swift stroke, or by cold, 
slow torture, has wasted the lives and souls of innumerable 

(5) men. And behold now a King himself, or say rather King- 
hood in his person, is to expire here in cruel tortures ; like a 
Phalaris shut in the belly of his own red-heated Brazen Bull ! 

(6) It is ever so ; and thou shouldst know it, O haughty tyrannous 
man: injustice breeds injustice; curses and falsehoods doveri- 

(7) ly return ' always home,' wide as they may wander. Innocent 
Louis bears the sins of many generations ; he too experiences 
that man's tribunal is not in this earth ; that if he had no High- 
er one, it were not well with him. 

B (8) "A King dying by such violence appeals impressively to 
(9) the imagination ; as the like must do, and ought to do. And 

(10) yet at bottom it is not the King dying, but the man ! King- 

(11) ship is a coat: the grand loss is of the skin. The man from 
whom you take his Life, to him can the whole combined world 

(12) do more? Lally went on his hurdle; his mouth filled with a 

(13) gag. Miserablest mortals, doomed for picking pockets, have 
a whole five-act Tragedy in them, in that dumb pain, as they 
go to the gallows, unregarded ; they consume the cup of trem- 

(14) bling down to the lees. For Kings and for Beggars, for the 

(15) justly doomed and the unjustly, it is a hard thing to die. Pity 



88 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

them all; thy utmost pity, with all aids and appliances and 
throne-and-scaffold contrasts, how far short is it of the tiling 
pitied!" 

Questions. 

1. Point out examples of abrupt expression in this passage. 

2. With -what figure of conatmclion docs the paragraph open ? How 
far does it extend V 

3. Are any of the expressions harsh or inelegant? 

4. Are any of the expressions colloquial or undignified? 

5. What figure of language is employed in (5)? 

6. Note instances of an inverted construction of sentences : what 
is the effect of this ? 

7. What is noticeable in the use of the word "doomed" in (13) and 
(14)? 

8. What is the difference in subject between A and B ? 



REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION, CAPITALIZING, ETC. 
The Comma. 

I. TJiree or more words used in the same way are generally sepa- 
rated by commas; as, "The lofty, majestic, snow-capped Himalayas 
extend across Asia;" "California produces wool, wine, and gold." 

II. Two words used in the same way should not be separated by a 
comma, unless the connective is omitted; as, "The lofty and majes- 
tic Himalayas extend across Asia;" "California produces wine and 
wool ;" " He was a brave, bold man." 

To this there are two exceptions, viz. : 

(1.) When two words connected by or mean the same thing, they should 
he separated by a comma; thus, "The bed, or channel, of the river." So, 
also, " Heenan, alias the Benicia boy." 

(2.) In the case of two words joined by way of contrast, a comma is placed 
after the first; thus, "He is poor, but honest ;" "Though deep, yet clear." 

III. Pairs of words of the same part of speech are separated from 
other pairs in the same scries by commas ; as, " Truth is fair and art- 
less, simple and sincere, uniform and consistent." 

IV. Nouns in apposition, when accompanied by modifying words 
or phrases, are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas; 
as, "Homer, the greatest poet of antiquity, is said to have been 
blind." 

V A single appositional noun unaccompanied by adjuncts is not usually 
separated by a comma from the noun it explains ; thus we write, "The Poet 
Homer," "Paul the Apostle." But the reason of the omission in these cases 
seems to be that the appositional noun has come to be, in a manner, part of, 
the name. When an appositioual noun is not closely associated with the 
name (as, for instance, when it is preceded by the indefinite article) the com- 
ma is used even when the noun is unqualified; thus, "John Ueavysidc, a 
blacksmith, was drowned last night." 



REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION, CAPITALIZING, ETC. 89 

V. The noun of address is set off by a comma, or by commas ; as, 
"My son, forget not my law;" "Tell me, my friend, all the circum- 
stances." 

VI. In a succession of phrases or clauses, each phrase or clause 
should be set off by commas, unless they are in pairs, connected by 
conjunctions; as, "They came on the third day, by the direction of 
the peasants, to the hermit's cell;" "Washington fought in New 
York and in New Jersey, during the years 1776 and 1777;" "When 
public bodies are to be addressed on momentous occasions, when 
great interests are at stake and strong passions excited, nothing is 
valuable in speech," etc. 

VII. An adjective phrase is generally set off by a comma ; or, if 
parenthetical, by two ; as, " Having completed their arrangements for 
the work of the morrow, they retired to snatch a few hours' repose;" 
" The Indian monarch, stunned and bewildered, saw his faithful sub- 
jects falling around him." But if the phrase is restrictive, no comma 
is required ; as, " A city set on a hill can not be hid." 

VIII. Adverbial phrases on which any stress is laid, either by trans- 
position or otherwise, and adverbs having the force of phrases (how- 
ever, therefore, indeed, etc.), are generally separated from the rest of the 
sentence by commas ; as, "In spite of all difficulties, they resolved to 
make the attempt;" "They resolved, in spite of all difficulties, to 
make the attempt ;" "In truth, I am wearied of his importunities ;" 
"I am, in truth, wearied of his importunities;" "The signal being 
given, the fleet weighed anchor." 

IX. Adverbial clauses, especially when they introduce a sentence, 
are generally set off by the comma; as, "While the world lasts, fash- 
ion will continue to lead it by the nose;" "As my heart was en- 
tirely subdued by the captivating strains I had heard, I fell down at 
his feet." 

X. Adjective clauses are set off from their principals by commas, 
except when they are restrictive; as, "Franklin, who became a great 
statesman and philosopher, was in youth a poor printer's boy ;" " The 
friar pointed to the book that he held." 

XI. A noun clause used as the subject of a verb must be separated 
from that verb by a comma; as, " That the soul is immortal, was be- 
lieved by Socrates." 

XII. Parenthetical clauses are to be set off by commas; as, "The 
project, it is certain, will succeed." 

XIII. The members of a compound sentence, whether full or con- 
tracted, are generally separated by commas, and always when there 
are more than two ; as, "On these trees they placed large stones, and 
then covered the whole with damp earth;" "The rich and the poor, 
the high and the low, the old and the young, were alike subjected to 
the vengeance of the conqueror." 

XIV. In contracted compound sentences, the omissions within the 
propositions are indicated by commas ; as, " To err is human ; to for- 
give, divine." 

XV. The comma maybe used in introducing a quotation not suffi- 



90 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

ciently formal to be introduced by the colon ; as, " Lawrence said, 
" Don't give up the ship." 

XVI. The words as, namely, and to wit, introducing an example, 
should be followed by a comma ; as, " There are three cases ; namely, 
the nominative, possessive, and objective." 

XVII. Tes and no, when followed by a word of address, should be 
followed by a comma; as, "No, sir." 

XVIII. The introductory words Voted, Hesolved, Ordered, should be 
followed by a comma; as, " Voted, To appoint Mr. William Rich com- 
missioner." 

The Semicolon. 

I. The members of a complex, or of a compound sentence, which 
are themselves subdivided by commas, are separated by the semi- 
colon ; as, " When Columbus had landed, he prostrated himself; and, 
having erected a crucifix, he took possession of the country in the 
name of Spain ;" "You may quit the field of business, though not the 
field of danger ; and though you can not be safe, you may cease to be 
ridiculous." 

II. In compound sentences, members introduced by conjunctions 
of the BuT-type and of the HEXCE-type are preceded by the semi- 
colon. But if the conjunction is omitted the colon is used (see 
Colon, Rule III.) ; as, "Apply yourself to study; for you will then 
achieve success." 

The connectives to wit, namely, and as, introducing an example, are 
preceded by the semicolon; as, "There are three cases; namely, the 
nominative, possessive, and objective." 

The Colon. 

I. When a compound sentence contains a series of distinct propo- 
sitions, and concludes with a member on which they all depend, that 
member is preceded by a colon; as, "That the diamond should be 
made of the same material as coal; that water should be chiefly 
composed of an inflammable substance ; that acids should be almost 
all formed, of different kinds of air; and that one of those acids, 
whose strength can dissolve almost any of the metals, should be 
made of the self-same ingredients with the common air we breathe : 
these, surely, are things to excite the wonder of any reflecting mind." 

II. A direct and formal method of introducing a quotation should 
be followed by a colon. By the direct and formal method of intro- 
ducing a quotation is meant the use of such expressions as the fvl- 
loiving, as follows, these : thus, " Governor Dix made the following state- 
ment : ' Our finances are in a sound condition.' " 

III. In a compound sentence, when the introductory member is 
followed by some remark or illustration that is not introduced by a 
conjunction, it is separated by a colon ; as, " No man should be too 
positive : the wisest arc often deceived." 

IV. Yes and no should be followed by the colon, when there comes 



REVIEW OP PUNCTUATION, CAPITALIZING, ETC. 91 

after them a statement in continuation or repetition of the answer ; 
as, " Is it wise to live beyond our means ? No : it is not wise." 

The Period. 

I. A period should close every declarative sentence (affirmative or 
negative). 

II. A period is used after every abbreviated word ; as, " G. Wash- 
ington;" "C.O.D." 

III. A period is used after a title or heading, and after an ad- 
dress and a signature ; as, " Milton's Paradise Lost." " Chapter III." 
"A. T. Stewart, Broadway, New York." 

The Interrogation-point. 

The Interrogation-point is placed after every direct question ; as, 
" Who will be the next President?" 

The Exclamation-point. 

The Exclamation-point is placed after words and sentences that 
express some emotion ; as, "Alas !" " How are the mighty fallen !" 

The Apostrophe. — Hyphen. — Caret. 

I. The Apostrophe denotes the omission of a letter or letters ; as, 
There's = There is ; King's = Kinges (old English). 

II. The Hyphen is often used in separating the parts of compound 
words ; as, state-prison ; also at the end of a line to show that a word 
is not completed. (See the last word of the next line.) 

III. The Caret ( A ) is used to indicate that one or more let- 
ters or words have been omitted and afterward interlined. 

The Dash. 

I. The Dash is used to mark that what comes after it is a state- 
ment of the particulars of what has gone before ; as, " We caught 
four fish— a trout, a salmon, a mackerel, and a blue-fish ;" also, to 
mark that what comes after it is a general statement, or summing 
up of particulars preceding it ; as, " He was witty, learned, industri- 
ous, plausible — every thing but honest." 

II. Dashes are sometimes used instead of the usual signs of paren- 
thesis, to inclose parenthetical expressions ; as, "The smile of a child 
—always so ready where there is no distress— is like an opening of 
the sky." 

III. The dash is used to mark an abrupt or unexpected turn in a 
sentence; as, 

And one— o'er her the myrtle showers 
Its leaves, by soft winds fanned. 

The Parenthesis. 

The Parenthesis is used to inclose some explanatory word or 
phrase introduced into the middle of a sentence, but entirely inde- 



92 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

pendent in construction; as, " The vapor of water (steam) upon cool- 
ing becomes a liquid." 

" The bliss of man (could pride that blessing find) 
Is not to act or think beyond mankind." 

Capitals. 
A capital letter should begin — 

1. The first word of every sentence. 

2. The first word of every line of poetry. 

3. The first word of every direct quotation. 

4. The first word after the introductory words Ordered, Voted, Re- 
solved, etc. ; as, " Ordered, That this shall be entered on the minutes." 

5. All proper nouns, and adjectives derived from them. 

6. Names of things used as persons; as, "The Brook said to the 
Mountain," etc. 

7. Names of the days of the week, and 'of the months of the year ; 
but not of the seasons. 

8. All words used as titles, or particular names. 

9. Names of the Supreme Being, and generally a personal pronoun 
that refers to Him. 

10. The pronoun I, the interjection O, and single letters forming 
abbreviations should be capitals. 

Exercise 44. 
Supply the Punctuation-marks omitted in tlie following para- 
graphs, and correct those that are wrong : 

The Comma. 

1. The soil of the earth, is not the same in all places. To do unto 
others, as we would be done unto io the sum of our duty toward our 
fellow-creatures. To indulge in continual regrets for what can not 
be remedied is only magnifying the evil. The God of our faith, 
dwells in light inaccessible. 

2. Beware of pleasure the mother of all evils. Milton, the poet, 
was afflicted with blindness. Sir Isaac Newton, the eminent astron- 
omer was remarkable for his modesty. Iloward the celebrated phi- 
lanthropist was no less distinguished for courage than benevolence. 
King, John of France, was taken prisoner in battle. Charles V. King 
of Spain and Emperor of Germany died in a convent. Socrates the 
Greek philosopher, never gave way to anger. The Roman emperor, 
Severus, died at York. 

3. An embattled wall fortified with towers encompassed the city 
of Jerusalem. The creation demonstrates the power, and wisdom 
of the Deity. The bodies of the greater part of insects are composed 
of several rings which close on each other and have a share in all the 
motions of the animal. The righteous shall flourish, like the palm- 
tree. The soil of Campania being full of 6ulphur the water contracts 
a disagreeable taste. Virtue strengthens in adversity moderates in 
prosperity supports in sickness and comforts in the hour of death. 
The study of astronomy expands, and elevates the mind. The less 
we are able to comprehend the works of nature the more eagerly 
should we seize every opportunity of inquiring into them. He is a 
good man, who readily forgives an injury. If the world were to see 



REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION, CAPITALIZING, ETC. 93 

our real motives we should be ashamed of some of our best actions. 
When I stand upon the summit of some lofty cliff and see the star 
of day rise slowly out of the ocean I feel a mingled sensation of sub- 
limity and adoration. 

4. It is quite unnecessary indeed to insist further upon the point. 
Consider on the other hand the advantages of truth. "A faithful 
friend" it is beautifully said "is the medicine of life." Mountains 
then we find are essential to the due preservation of the earth. With 
respect to man no doubt there are many new things which take place 
in the earth. In the first place let us represent to ourselves the im- 
mense space, in which .the heavenly bodies are placed. In short the 
wisdom, and goodness of God are conspicuous in all parts of the 
creation. Avoid as much as possible the company of the wicked. 
"Habit" says the proverb "is a second nature." 

5. The principal metals, are gold silver mercury copper iron tin, 
and lead. The cocoa-nut tree supplies the inhabitants with bread 
milk and oil. We should live soberly righteously and piously in the 
present world. The soul can understand will imagine see hear love, 
and discourse. A man that is temperate generous valiant faithful 
and honest may at the same time have wit humor mirth and good- 
breeding. The characteristics of chivalry, were valor humanity court- 
esy justice and honor. Power riches and prosperity are sometimes 
conferred on the worst of men. 

6. The wise, and the foolish the virtuous, and the evil the learned, 
and the ignorant the temperate, and the profligate must often be 
blended together. Absalom's beauty Jonathan's love David's valor 
and Solomon's wisdom though faintly amiable in the creature are 
found in unspeakable perfection in the Creator. Manners and cus- 
toms virtues and vices knowledge and ignorance principles and habits 
are with little variation transmitted from one generation to another. 
He alternately commanded and entreated threatened and implored 
defied and flattered. Death levels the rich, and the poor, the proud, 
aud the humble, the strong, and the feeble, the young, and the old. 

Semicolon. 

1. The Dutch have a saying that thefts never enrich, alms never 
impoverish, prayers hinder no" work. The most remarkable precious 
stones are the diamond which is colorless and transparent, the 
sapphire blue, the topaz yellow, the amethyst purple, and the garnet 
a deep red. The fust nations who paid attention to architecture 
were the Babylonians who built the Temple of Belus and the hang- 
ing gardens, the Assyrians who filled Nineveh with splendid build- 
ings, the Phoenicians whose cities were adorned with magnificent 
structures, and the Israelites whose temple was considered wondei-- 
ful. There are tears for his love joy for his fortune honor for his 
valor and death for his ambition. 

2. His manner was humble, but his spirit was haughty. When the 
righteous are in authority the people rejoice, but when the wicked 
beareth rule the people mourn. The duty of a soldier is to obey his 
general ; not to direct him. Tour enemies may be formidable by 
their numbers and their power, but He who is with you is mightier 
than they. We have taken up arms not to betray our country but to 
defend it. The dog wolf and bear are sometimes known to live on 
vegetables or farinaceous food but the lion the tiger the leopard and 
other animals of this class devour nothing but flesh. 

3. Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted. Mary 
was impatient of contradiction, because she had been accustomed 



94 scnooL COMPOSITION. 

from her infancy to be treated as a queen. Too much anxiety to 
avoid evils often brings them upon us, and we frequently cause mis- 
fortunes by the very elibrts we make to escape them. A great advan- 
tage in the manufacture of almost every article is the division of labor 
for when each man has only one thing to do he soon acquires great 
neatness and proiiciency in the performance. Gold the most pre- 
cious metal is found in every part of the world but the most produc- 
tive mines are those of America and the East Indies. 

Colon. 

1. Choose what is most fit, custom will make it most agreeable. 
I do not repine at my condition, it is the decree of Heaven. Guard 
with vigilance against the habit of procrastination, nothing is more 
injurious to success in life. The origin of a virtuous and happy life 
is derived from early years whoever would reap happiness in old age 
must plant virtue in youth. To reason with him was vain he was in- 
fatuated. Do not flatter yourself with the idea of perfect happiness 
there is no such thing in the world. 

2. The feebleness of the body and the weakness of the mind the 
dimness of the eye and the failure of the limbs the restless night and 
the day that can no longer be enjoyed ; these are some of the frailties 
and afflictions of old age as described by the sacred Preacher. Since 
man is on his very entrance into the world the most helpless of all 
creatures since he'is for a series of years entirely dependent oh the 
support and protection of others, and since he must at last be laid 
down in the dust from which he was taken, how vain and absurd docs 
it appear that such a being should indulge in worldly pride ! 

8. In my youth I saw the sepulchre of Cyrus, which bore this in- 
scription; I am Cyrus, he who subdued the Persian empire. Tiberi- 
us interrupted him with astonishment ; Can these be the seutiments 
of Belisarius ! The apostle thus gives expression to the intensity of 
his emotion, O wretched man that I am ! who shall deliver me from 
the body of this death ? The patriot thus addressed the assembly, My 
friends we are brought to great straits this day. 

Period. 

1. Death is the king of terrors religion breathes a spirit of gentle- 
ness and affability a man can not live pleasantly unless he lives wise- 
ly and honestly honor glory and immortality are promised to virtue 
the happiness allotted to man in his present state is indeed faint and 
low compared with his immortal prospects it is miserable we think 
to be deprived of the light of the sun to be shut out from life and 
conversation and to be laid in the cold grave a prey to corruption 
and the reptiles of the earth the happiness of the dead however most 
assuredly is affected by none of these circumstances nor is it the 
thought of these things which cau disturb the profound serenity of 
their repose. 

2. The student obtained the decree of AM Jerusalem was de- 
stroyed by Titus ad 70 At the death of Charles IV of I' ranee his 
nearest heirs were his sister Isabella mother of Edward III and his 
cousin-german Philip of Valois Then shall the kingdom of Heaven 
be likened unto ten virgins Matt xxv 1 

Interrogation, Exclamation, Dash, and Parenthesis. 
1. Approach O man and try what thy wisdom and thy power can 
execute. Canst thou make one tree to blossom or one leaf to gcr- 



REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION, CAPITALIZING, ETC. 95 

minate. Canst thou call from the earth the smallest blade of grass 
or order the tulip to rise in all its splendor. Contemplate these 
flowers. Examine them with attention Can they be more perfect 
Can their colors be more beautifully blended or their forms be more 
elegantly proportioned Can the pencil of the painter equal the 
warmth of the blossoming peach or imitate the richness of the cher- 
ry-tree in bloom So far from imitating no one can conceive all the 
beauties of nature ! 

2. How delightful is the face of nature when the morning light first 
dawns upon a country embosomed in snow. The thick mist which 
obscured the earth and concealed every object from our view at once 
vanishes ! How beautiful to see the hills the forests and the groves 
all sparkling in white What a delightful combination these objects 
present Observe the brilliancy of those hedges See the lofty trees 
bending beneath their dazzling burden The surface of the earth ap- 
pears one vast plain mantled in white and splendid array ! 

3. Here lies the great false marble where. Our fathers each man 
was a god. And we shall we die in our chains. If thou beest he but 
oh how fallen. 

And thou the billows' queen even thy proud form 
On our glad sight no more perchance may swell. 

4. He gained from Heaven 'twas all he wished a friend. The dis- 
tance of the nearest of these fixed stars or suns for suns they are 
proved to be is at least twenty billion miles What are our views of 
all worldly things and the same appearances they would always have 
if the same thoughts were always predominant when a sharp or te- 
dious sickness has set death before our eyes and the last hour seems 
to be approaching. 

B. 

Construction of sentences to illustrate Punctuation: 

1. Write six sentences, in each of which a comma is required. 

2. Write six sentences in each of which two commas are required. 

3. Write six sentences in each of which three commas are required. 

4. Write six sentences in each of which four commas are required. 

5. Write six sentences in each of which a semicolon is required. 

6. Write six sentences in each of which two semicolons are re- 
quired. 

7. Write six sentences in each of which a colon is required. 

8. Write six sentences in each of which a point of interrogation is 
required. 

9. Write six sentences in each of which a point of exclamation is 
required. 

10. Write from memory the Lord's Prayer, inserting the points. 



PART V. 

PRACTICAL COMPOSITION. 



131. We are now to make practical application of all we 
have learned, in the form of Compositions, Themes, and Es- 
says. 

Note. — In this book the term Composition will be applied to 
simple exercises written from outlines. A Theme is an exer- 
cise in which the subject is treated according to a set of Heads 
methodically arranged. An Essay is a discussion of a subject 
on a plan not so formal as that of a Theme. 

Section I.— Compositions. 
Descriptive Composition. 

1. Write a short account of the following objects, describing 
their construction, materials, form, and use : 

Example.— The Gun. 

The gun consists of a stock, lock, and barrel. The barrel is a long 
tube made of wrought iron, which is formed into the required shape 
either by being beaten upon another piece of iron or by being bored 
with a sharp steel instrument. Its use is to receive the charge, which 
consists of gunpowder and shot firmly pressed down to the end by 
means of a rod called the ramrod. The lock consists of the spring, 
the trigger or handle for moving the spring, the dog-head, and the 
nipple for fixing the percussion-cap. By means of this contrivance, 
a quick blow is given to the percussion-cap, upon the drawing of the 
spring. A spark is thus produced, which sets fire to the gunpowder 
contained in the barrel. An explosion follows, and carries off the 
ball or other contents of the gun. The stock is generally made of 
wood. It serves as a resting-place for one end of the barrel, and is, 
at the same time, attached to the lock. The gun is used in war and 
in field sports. 

Exep.cises. 

A Scythe. A Cart. A Carriage. A Railroad. 

A Plow. A Penknife. A Balloon. A Watch. 

A Reaper. An Umbrella. A Steamboat. A Bridge. 



COMPOSITIONS. 97 

2. Write a short account of the following operations: 

Example.— Lithography. 
Lithography is the art of taking impressions from stone. The first 
step in the process is to write with lithographic ink, on prepared pa- 
per, a copy of what is to be printed. The stone is then heated at a 
fire, and the copy is applied to it in order to be transferred. After 
remaining for some time, the paper is gently washed off, when the 
writing is found to be impressed on the stone, which has the proper- 
ty of absorbing the lithographic ink. The stone is now laid upon a 
press, and its surface being damped with a cloth, the printing-ink is 
applied by means of a roller. The ink, being oily, adheres to the im- 
pression, but is repelled by the other parts of the stone, which are 
defended by the water. Paper is then placed npon the stone, and 
the whole is passed through the press, when the impression is printed. 

Exercises. 

Sowing. Hay-making. Brewing. Book-binding. 

Plowing. Thrashing. Baking. Engraving. 

Beaping. Plumbing. Printing. Dyeing. 

3. Write a short account of the process of making the following 
substances : 

Example. — Gunpowder. 
Gunpowder is composed of nitre or saltpetre, charcoal, and sulphur. 
These are first reduced to a fine powder, and then mixed. The pro- 
portion in which they are united may differ; but good gunpowder 
consists of 76 parts of nitre, 15 of charcoal, and 9 of sulphur. After 
being thoroughly combined, they are formed into a thick paste with 
water. This is allowed to dry, when it is passed through a kind of 
sieve, which divides it into grains. The grains are made coarse or 
fine, according to the size of the holes in the sieve. 







Exercises. 




Flour. 

Butter. 
Cheese. 


Salt. 
Soap. 
Glass. 


Paper. 

Ink. 

Gas. 


Sealing-wax. 
Earthenware. 
Glue. 



4. Write a short account of the icorlc and materials of the fol- 
lowing tradesmen : 

Example. — TJie Cooper. 
The cooper is principally employed in making barrels for the pres- 
ervation of various substances. These barrels differ greatly in size, 
from the huge vat, required by the distiller and brewer, to the small 
cask used by the merchant. Besides these, he manufactures tubs, 
pails, and other vessels of domestic utility. The best kinds of wood 
for cooperage are oak, beech, and fir. For the purposes of the coop- 
er, these are cut into long, flat pieces, called staves, a few inches 
broad, and about half an inch thick. In making barrels, the staves 
are cut a certain length, and tapered a little toward each end. They 
are also formed with a slight curve, which produces the swelling in 
the centre peculiar to barrels. The bottom of the barrel consists ei- 
ther of one piece of wood, or of several joined together. The staves 
being arranged round it, they are kept in their places by iron hoops. 



( J8 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

The cooper then forces on the hoops, and, after placing in the head, 
continues to drive them toward the centre until the vessel is rendered 
perfectly water-tight. The adze, the plane, and a peculiar kind of 
knife, called a drawing-knife, are the principal instruments used by 
the cooper. 

Exekcises. 

The blacksmith. The basket-maker. 

The book-binder. The trunk-maker. 

The boiler-maker. The wheelwright. 

The turner. The ropc-spinncr. 

The painter. The ship-carpenter. 

The plumber. The glass-blower. 

Write sJwrt compositions on the following subjects : 

Model. — Plants and Animals. 

Life is common to both animals and plants; and in the posses- 
sion of that attribute they are both distinguished from things inani- 
mate. 

Plants, as well as animals, require food to maintain them in exist- 
ence, and, like them, are furnished with vessels to convey nourishment 
to the different parts of their system; the circulation of the sap in the 
one, and that of the blood in the other, presenting one of the most 
striking analogies between them. They breathe by means of the 
leaves, which thus perform the functions of lungs, and they also ab- 
sorb and exhale moisture abundantly. 

In many other respects plants exhibit a close resemblance to ani- 
mals. They are benumbed by cold and revived by heat ; frost or poi- 
son deprives them of life ; and, in adapting themselves to the situation 
in which they are placed, in closing or shifting their leaves on symp- 
toms of danger, and in various other ways, they display qualities that 
are very like what in animals we call instinct. 

T'inally, in its development, a plant passes through successive stages 
of existence, just as an animal goes through a progress from birth 
to death. Both are at first comparatively feeble. Both acquire, as 
they advance, greater power of action or resistance. Botli must, af- 
ter a certain period of time, sink under the same decay of their facul- 
ties, and go back to be "resolved into the elements." 

1. A Bee-ihve and a Social Community : 

Congregation into distinct societies common to both— various 
classes in a community— different orders in a bee-hive — the 
bee-hive and a monarch}- — body-guard of the queen-bee — re- 
semblance in division of labor — co-operation of all toward the 
common benefit — the hive — a city in miniature — streets — pal- 
aces — store-houses — provident industry of the bee — union in 
repelling invasion — likeness between the swarming of a hive 
and colonization. 

2. Friendship : 

No voice so welcome as that of friendship — it rejoices in prosper- 
ity — speaks words of comfort in adversity — is full of sympathy 
and love— it cheers the mourner — gladdens the wretched — 



COMPOSITIONS. 99 

lightens the load of the care-worn breast — entreats an erring 
brother to repent — the sentiment of friendship exercises a be- 
• neficent influence on the human character by expanding the 
affections — its tendency to promote amiability of disposition — 
friendship in its true sense must first, however, be founded on 
virtue and well-grounded esteem— the friendship of the good 
seldom disturbed b} r conflict of interests — the transition from 
friendship to the more expansive sentiment of philanthropy, 
natural and easy. 

3. The Benefits op Commerce : 

Affords employment to large numbers — increases wealth and 
prosperity — calls forth energy, enterprise, activity — creates a 
demand for education — leads to rural and social elevation — 
binds men together by promoting common interests — binds 
nations together, and thus promotes peace — importance of 
commerce in our own country — the two most commercial na- 
tions of Europe — contrast modern commercial nations with an- 
cient nations based on military power — the more likely to be 
the more enduring. 

Reflective Composition. 

Outlines. 

Civilization and Barbarism : 

Civilization and barbarism defined— difference in intellectual po- 
sition between the civilized man and the barbarian — enjoyments 
of the barbarian chiefly sensual — contrast with the pleasures to 
be derived from the cultivation of the mind — the physical com- 
forts of man keep pace with his advance in civilization — wretch- 
ed condition of the barbarian with respect to the comforts of 
life — illustrations — Hottentot — Bushmen — indolence of the 
savage — content with the gratification of his immediate wants 
— energy of the civilized mind in making provision for the fu- 
ture — barbarism unfavorable to humanity — disregard of life 
evinced by uncivilized nations — exemplify — immolation of chil- 
dren by Hindoos — destruction of deformed infants by negroes 
— of their aged parents by certain tribes — contrast with the 
philanthropic institutions of civilized life. 

Industry and Idleness : 

Industry a means of prosperity— idleness predicts misfortune— in- 
dustry a preservative from evil habits — the idle peculiarly ex- 
posed to temptation — beneficial effects of industry upon the in- 
tellectual character — prejudicial and enervating influence of 
idleness — the two characters as contrasted by Solomon — indus- 
try and idleness viewed as national characteristics — their effects 
—illustration— Holland— Spain. 



100 



SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 



Selfishness and Benevolence : 

Selfishness essentially mean and degrading — the character conse- 
quently repulsive— the aims of benevolence noble— the charac- 
ter therefore attractive — the cold and suspicious nature of self- 
ishness — the •warmth and ingenuousncsb of benevolence — self- 
ishness apt to become unprincipled — such a feature incompati- 
ble with benevolence— the selfish man has no true friend— the 
benevolent man universally beloved— selfishness frequently de- 
feated in its end — consequent bitterness and humiliation — the 
exercise of benevolence always accompanied by gratification 
and self-approval — illustrations. 

Additional Subjects. 



1. Why Education shouldbe com- 

pulsory. 

2. The Choice of Companions. 

3. Advantages of Travel. 

4. Uses of Recreation. 

5. Cleanliness. 

6. Importance of early Training. 

7. Power of Trifles. 

8. How has Slavery been justi- 

fied? 

9. Character of Washington. 

10. Character of Pres't Jackson. 

11. The American Government. 



12. Advantages resulting from our 

Ignorance of the Future. 

13. That the Planets arc inhabited. 

14. That the Planets are not in- 

habited. 

15. Proofs of the Earth's Motion 

round the Sun. 

16. Proofs of the Earth's Rotation. 

17. The Burning of Chicago. 

18. Influence of physical Well-be- 

ing on Moral. 

19. Temptations of Poverty. 

20. The Influence of Art 



Section II.— Themes. 
First Method. 

I. Introduction: Make a few preliminary remarks applica- 
ble to the subject. 

II. Definition : State the subject distinctly, and, if neces- 
sary, explain it by a formal definition, a paraphrase, or a de- 
scription. 

III. Origin : Explain the origin of the subject, or state the 
principles upon which its origin may be accounted for. 

IV. Progress : Give an account of the development of the 
subject from its origin to the present time. 

V. Present Condition : Describe the subject as it is now 
in operation. 

VI. Effects: Show the influence of the subject upon so- 
ciety, and the relation in which it stands to kindred subjects. 

VII. Conclusion : Conclude with such remarks, or reflec- 
tions, apposite to the subject, as could not have been conven- 
iently introduced under any of the previous heads. 

1. The Art of Prlntlng : 

Introduction. — Necessity for diffusion of knowledge — means for 
this end in ancient times— their inefficiency— our great means. 



THEMES. 101 

Definition. — Printing— what it is. 

Origin.— First attempts in the art— their deficiency— the invent- 
or of modern printing— story of Faust and Guttenberg— first 
printed book. 

Progress.— Its introduction into England— into America— ap- 
plication of steam to printing. 

Present Condition.— Extent to which printing is now applied. 

Effects.— Effects of this invention on the condition of the world 
as regards knowledge, and the moral improvement of men. 

Conclusion.— God said, "Let there be light", and there was 
light"— so printing diffuses, etc. 

2. Agriculture : * 

The various sources of subsistence which God has put in man's 
power — agriculture — what is meant by it — its antiquity — Scrip- 
ture proof— how it has been estimated by various nations — its 
progress not so rapid as that of some other arts — war its special 
enemy — its present advanced position — effects on the condi- 
tion of man shown by considering his state without it— its 
connection with civilization— real dignity and independence 
of the farmer's life. 

3. Newspapers: 

One of the many advantages of printing— newspapers as a branch 
of the periodical press— date, country, and circumstances of 
their origin— feeling that gave them birth — what contributed 
to their spread — introduction into the United States — their 
present universality — process of printing newspapers — illus- 
trate by a newspaper in your town — their effects — contribu- 
tions to freedom, justice, humanity, the promotion of general 
intelligence — influence on literary taste — possible abuse of their 
influence — advantages derived from reading newspapers — dif- 
ferent position of the ancients and moderns in this respect — 
duty of a modern citizen with regard to them. 

4. Telescope: 

Feebleness of our senses compared with the extent of the uni- 
verse around us — value of any invention that extends their 
range— the telescope— what it is— how it acts— its different 
parts— author of the invention— defects of the first telescope — 
causes — by what successive improvements removed — authors 
of these improvements — the two most famous telescopes — the 
one of the last century — what it achieved — the other — difficul- 
ties of its construction — its achievements — uses of the tele- 
scope for astronomical and nautical purposes — illustrate both 

* The pupil should be required to arrange the points under the various 
Heads as set forth in the Fikst Method. 



102 scnooL COMPOSITION. 

— general extension of our knowledge of the system of the 
universe — enlarged ideas of the Creator. 

5. Architecture : 

What it is — its origin — its early state — diversity of national taste 
in architecture— influence that acted on its development— vari- 
ous kinds of dwellings in primitive times — mention of them in 
Scripture — character of the nations by whom each was used — 
the two elements in all architecture — how both are necessary 
to its advancement — the nations of antiquity eminent for archi- 
tecture — the most celebrated orders of architecture — illustrate 
by the most splendid remains and imitations — modern styles — 
their characteristics and best examples — necessity of architect- 
ure to civilized society — how it has contributed to its physical 
aud moral improvement— illustrate by considering the condi- 
tion of man without it. 

6. Commerce: 

The meaning of the term and the considerations involved in it- 
its origin in the mutual dependence of the nations of the world 
for the supply of their various wants — its consequent antiquity 
— earliest instances recorded — principal commercial states of 
antiquity mentioned in sacred and profane history — extent to 
which ancient commerce was carried on — illustrate — what 
cause set limits to it — state the circumstances that made Eu- 
rope the centre of the world's commerce— the causes that se- 
cured its permanence as such — chief commercial states at the 
present time — from its origin we may infer its universality — no 
country that may not beneficially engage in it— effects of com- 
merce—extent of its contributions to the necessities and com- 
forts of mankind — it is the chain that binds savage and civilized 
countries together, overcoming whatever obstacles may sepa- 
rate them — its consequent influence on civilization — its ad- 
vantages illustrated by considering the condition, physical and 
moral, of any country without it — conclusion : every thing 
tending to promote commerce may be considered a blessing to 
the world — war generally its greatest enemy. 

7. Traveling : 

Naturally suggests itself to civilized man as a means of improve- 
ment — estimation in which it has always been held— earliest 
travelers, as Solon, Pythagoras, Herodotus — for what they pre- 
pared themselves by it— necessity of it in their circumstances 
— general objects of travel— discovery— knowledge in all its 
departments— cultivation of the mind and formation of the 
character — illustrate the extent of its benefits in all these re- 
spects — the preparations requisite for traveling to advantage. 



THEMES. 103 

8. Music- 

Meaning of the term, and the considerations involved in it — its 
first development in melody — what are the two constituents 
of this — show that they are implanted in our nature, and mani- 
fest themselves spontaneously — music, then, as the expression 
of feeling, has its foundation in the constitution of our nature 
— what is harmony — belongs to an advanced stage of musical 
cultivation— different kinds of music— its antiquity naturally 
to be inferred— earliest record of it— chief musical nations of 
antiquity— Hebrew music— Greek music— with what intimate- 
ly connected— extent of our knowledge of ancient music — early 
use of music. 

9. Government: 

What is meant by government — its objects — its necessity to man- 
kind — its divine sanction — the foundation and characteristics 
of good government as opposed to mere force — universality of 
government under different aspects — its antiquity — earliest 
form — various forms prevailing at present, with their charac- 
teristics — examples — the advantages of our own form of gov- 
ernment — influence of government on civilization — on the hap- 
piness and advancement of mankind, social, mental, and moral 
— the condition of those countries where it is imperfectly de- 
veloped — the duty of citizens with regard to it. 

Second Method. 

I. Introduction: Make a few preliminary remarks appli- 
cable to the subject. 

II. Definition: State the object distinctly, and, if neces- 
sary, explain it by a formal definition or a description. 

III. Nature : Give such an account of the subject as may 
serve to determine its character. 

IV. Operation and Effects: How the subject is mani- 
fested, and in what manner it affects the individual or society. 

V. Examples : Adduce examples in illustration of the sub- 
ject. 

VI. Application : Show what our duty is with reference to 
the subject, and how we may profit by an examination of it. 

1. On Friendship : 

Instinctive aversion of our nature to solitude and its associations 
— the mere presence of our fellow-men gives cheerfulness — how 
much more friendship — what is true friendship, and what is in- 
cluded in it — acquaintance not friendship — distinguish it from 
its counterfeits — its characteristics — it is rare, like every thing 
of true value — it is limited in its objects, i. «., we can not have a 
great many true friends— it is unselfish— its effects— it largely 



104 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

contributes to the happiness of the world by the sympathy and 
aid which it offers — reference to this in Scripture— it purifies 
and elevates the nature of him who cherishes it — ardor which 
may pervade it — example from history: David and Jonathan, 
Damon and Pythias, Achilles and Patroclus, Douglas and Ran- 
dolph, Wallace and Graham — application — advantage of culti- 
vating it — necessity of caution in selecting friends, from its 
great influence on our character and prospects— constancy in 
friendship when once entered into. 

2. Anger : 

What is anger — not in itself to be condemned — the testimony 
of Scripture— occasions for virtuous anger— advantage and duty 
of manifesting it — quite consistent with the character of meek- 
ness — Moses — unjustifiable anger — what constitutes it — its in- 
tolerant nature— its weakness— its effects— tendency to dissolve 
the bonds of friendship — misery of all exposed to it — conse- 
quences often irreparable — its vicious influence on the mind 
and body of him who indulges it — examples — application — our 
duty to guard against this passion— its beginnings specially 
dangerous. 

3. Ambition: 

Some of the passions commonly condemned are implanted in man 
for good ends— mention instances, and show their propriety- 
ambition one of these — not necessarily bad — define it in its 
good sense — the end it seeks to attain — the means it will em- 
ploy — its beneficial operation, both on the subject of it, as in- 
volving the exertion and expansion of his faculties, and as rais- 
ing him to a higher sphere of influence and happiness— and on 
mankind as experiencing the happy results of all this — extent 
of its benefits from the universality of its operation — every man 
in every occupation who has raised himself to eminence an ex- 
ample of it — ambition in its bad sense — its characteristics; for 
example, its exclusiveness and consequent inhumanity — its un- 
scrupulousness, insatiableness — show how these necessarily 
spring out of it — its effects — makes the subject of it the unhap- 
py prey of contending passions, and withdraws him from the 
true end of his being— its effects on the world— endless misery, 
mental, moral, and physical — examples from civil and eeclesias* 
tical history— Coesar, Alexander, Pyrrhus, Sextus V., Wolscj, 
Henry VIII. — the hollowness of its attainments often reluc- 
tantly testified to by conscience — anecdotes of Napoleon — prac- 
tical inferences from the foregoing. 

4. Avarice : 

Like many other vices, arises from the abuse of a right principle— 
what that principle is— what avarice is — its characteristics — its 



THEMES. 105 

effects on the subject himself— how it tyrannizes over and de- 
grades his spirit, contradicting the nobler feelings of nature, 
such as generosity, charity, and stains his character with other 
feelings equally hateful with itself, such as jealousy, hatred, de- 
ceit — the moral and physical comfort of which the avaricious 
man deprives himself, and the dangers he is exposed to — its 
effects on his family — on society, as he contributes nothing to 
promote its interest — examples — dissuasives from this passion 
— a picture of the avaricious man sufficient to disgust us — the 
object of it fleeting and contemptible compared with the true 
end of man's life — dictates of Nature, and precepts of Scripture 
— our duty then to use our means aright, and to contribute by 
them to the promotion of human happiness, so far as the im- 
mediate claims of family and friends allow. 

5. Envy: 

What it is— its tendency— its foundation, selfishness — its compo- 
nents, hatred, and grief— hatred of another for what he has, 
grief for our want of it— how it manifests itself in slander and 
outward opposition to its object — its characteristics— mali- 
cious, as having no apparent motive, and as converting good- 
ness itself into a source of evil — weak, as it can not gain that 
good for its subject which might be obtained by other means 
— unrelenting, as admitting no reconciliation with its object — 
ungenerous, as directed without scruple even against friends 
and those who have a just claim to the good wishes of its sub- 
ject—what qualities most expose a man to it — prevalence in 
every station — no protection against its darts — its effect on the 
spirit of its subject— its influence on friendship and all the ties 
that bind men together — actual evil which it has produced, as 
shown in history — exemplify by the case of Saul and David — 
practical inferences. 

6. Contentment: 

There is much that we can not possess in the world— folly of 
striving after such things — the essentials of happiness gener- 
ally easy of acquisition — what does contentment imply — it 
springs not from outward sources— a man may change his con- 
dition often without finding it — it is contained in the mind it- 
self—not to be confounded with indifference to external things 
—not antagonistic to honorable exertion— happiness which a 
contented spirit carries within itself, and imparts to those 
with whom it comes in contact — example — Carina Dentatus, 
Cincinnatus, "Washington — advantage of cultivating such a 
spirit as the contented man has — what the ambitious, with 
endless labor and risk, are only seeking to obtain, namely, the 
attainment of their wishes. 



106 school composition. 

Third Method. 

I. The Proposition or Statement : Show the meaning of 
the subject, by amplification, paraphrase, or explanation. 

II. The Reason or Proof : Prove the truth of the propo- 
sition by some reason or argument. 

III. The Confirmation: Show the unreasonableness of the 
contrary opinion, or advance some other reason in support of 
the former. 

IV. The Analogy or Simile: Illustrate the truth of what 
is affirmed by introducing some comparison. 

V. The Example : Bring instances from history to corrob- 
orate the truth of your affirmation, or the soundness of your 
reasoning. 

VI. The Testimony : Introduce proverbial sentences or pas- 
sages from good authors, to show that others think as you do. 

VII. The Conclusion: Sum up the whole, and show the 
practical use of the subject by some appropriate observations. 

1. Perseverance overcomes all Difficulties: 

Proposition— reason — it is in the nature of things that a spirit 
such as perseverance indicates should attain the end for which 
it strives — confirmation — most of what is great in the world, 
whether the production of the mind or of the hand is the re- 
sult of perseverance— illustrate variously — analogy — dropping 
water hollows out the stone in course of time— perseverance 
exemplified throughout creation — the spider, beaver, and other 
animals — most men of eminence — examples — Robert Bruce, 
Columbus— testimony or quotation— lessons drawn from the 
proposition — encouragement afforded by a knowledge of the 
way to insure success in our pursuits — fate of the character in- 
fected with an opposite habit. 

2. Delays are Dangerous: 

Proposition— reasons— probable non-attainment of the end de- 
layed— the uncertainty of our lives — constant change in the po- 
sition of affairs — others will not wait for us — even if the end be 
attained, much loss of time and annoyance are entailed, both 
on the subject himself and on others — illustrations — the stories 
of Archias, a magistrate of Thebes, and of Mark Antony— Frank- 
lin's advice — practical inferences — advantage of doing every- 
thing in its proper time — our duty to practice and inculcate 
regularity, if we would preserve our own comfort or respecta- 
bility. 

0. Honesty is the best Policy: 

The meaning of the proverb— what it does not mean— reasons 
supporting the proposition— honesty procures the esteem r.nd 



THEMES. 107 

confidence of others, which is a great means of advancement — 
the probability of dishonesty being discovered, though it bene- 
fit at the instant— consequences of this discovery— danger of 
one dishonest act succeeding another, thereby rendering the 
utter ruin of one's character, and its consequences not improb- 
able—the feelings engendered by dishonesty— the dishonest man 
having wronged others, has many enemies to fear — most hon- 
est men can furnish from their own lives instances of the truth 
of the proposition — history records many, as the story of Wash- 
ington, of Earl Fitzwilliam and the farmer — testimony or quo- 
tation — our duty to practice honesty and to inculcate it as 
evinced by the above considerations — why we should carefully 
refrain from speaking lightly of it. 

4. Punctuality procures Confidence: 

The proposition — how punctuality procures confidence — qualities 
it indicates in its subject, as resolution, perseverance, prompt- 
ness in action — nature seems to inculcate this habit on us — it 
is regular in all its operations, so that we place implicit confi- 
dence in their performance — most of those whose talents have . 
raised them to eminence illustrate the truth of the proposition 
— exemplified also in every-day life— testimony or quotation — 
what the above considerations should teach us, both with ref- 
erence to ourselves and others — danger of allowing trifling ex- 
cuses to induce a violation of the habit of punctuality. 

5. Virtue is its own Reward: 

What virtue is — its tendency to procure worldly prosperity — 
such a reward is not without value in the eyes of the virtuous 
man— yet virtue must be pursued for its own sake— whether 
its legitimate tendency be realized or not, it is of the essence of 
virtue to reward him who practices it— the nature and excel- 
lence of this reward— reason of this to be sought in our moral 
nature— vast influence for good of this appointment, as virtue 
is often unrewarded, sometimes persecuted, in this world— suf- 
ficiency of virtue's own reward — singularity can not shame it, 
oppression can not crush it— in such circumstances it only 
shines the more — may be compared to a fragrant flower when 
crushed, or to beauty amidst suffering or in tears, which appears 
to us with additional charms — every virtuous man feels the 
truth of our proposition, and is an instance of its truth — his- 
tory furnishes abundance of examples — Aristides, Phocion, 
Fabricius, Sir Philip Sydney — mankind spontaneously testify 
to the excellence of virtue— this testimony universal— quota- 
tion — what the proposition teaches us — virtue the highest 
ornament of character — what hopes its connection with happi- 
ness authorizes the virtuous man to cherish as to a future state 
— the grounds of this expectation. 



108 



SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 



Miscellaneous Subjects for Themes. 



1. The Microscope. 

2. The Art of Writing. 

3. Emulation. 

4. Poetry. 

5. Sculpture. 

6. Custom is second Nature. 

7. Never too late to Learn. 

8. The Cotton Manufacture. 

9. The Silk Manufacture. 

10. Geography. 

11. Painting. 

12. Benevolence. 

13. Affectation. 

14. Knowledge is Power. 

15. Necessity is the Mother of In- 

vention. 

16. Piety. 



17. Hope. 

18. Astronomy. 

19. Mechanics' Institutions. 

20. Charity. 

21. Frugality is a great Revenue. 
23. Evil Communications corrupt 

good Manners. 
23. Aerostation. 
21. Well begun is half done. 

25. Politeness. 

26. Independence. 

27. Self-denial. 

28. Self-esteem. 

29. Example is better than Pre- 

cept. 
CO. Deserve Success, and you will 
command it. 



Section III.— Essays. 

Write Essays from the following Outlines: 

1. On Cruelty to Animals: 

a. The obligations of man to the lower animals — the ingratitude 
of maltreating his benefactors. 

b. The goodness of God in providing these animals for our use, 
and in giving man "dominion over them" — the injustice or 
immorality of abusing God's gifts, and of violating the trust 
which that "dominion" implies. 

c. The duty of caring for the helpless, of being kind to the dumb 
— the cowardice of taking advantage of their helplessness and 
inability to plead their own cause. 

d. The hardening effect upon the heart and affections of system- 
atic ill-treatment of dumb animals — the intelligence that can 
be developed in them — the pleasure derivable from their com- 
panionship — the fidelity and love with which they are capable 
of rewarding their benefactors. 

2. A Taste for Reading: 

a. Variety of work requires variety of recreation — contrast the 
cases of mental and of manual labor — one resource always 
available is the taste for reading. 

b. Eminently a rational recreation — furnishes the mind with sub- 
stantial ideas and eloquent images — drives away listlessm ■-- — 
excludes temptation — lightens labor. 

c. Reading not only gives occupation, but introduces a man into 
the choicest friendships— the wisest, the best, and the worthi- 
est of all time: this society is ennobling. 



ESSAYS. 109 

d. All mr.y find in reading something to suit their taste — instruc- 
tion, incident, adventure, scenes from nature and from human 
life — to increase the store of knowledge, stimulate imagination, 
purify the sentiments. 

e. A source of hajDpiness to others as well as to one's self — 
prompts and enriches conversation. 

/. What a great French writer (Montesquieu) has said, "He had 
never known any cares that were not lightened by an hour's 
reading "—experience of all who have the taste. 

3. The Good and the Evil of War: 

a. The good : calls forth noble sentiments, courage, manliness- 
rouses a nation from lethargy — counteracts the effeminacy, 
luxury, weakness, indolence, which a long peace engenders— 
frequently avenges tyranny, murder, and banishes barbarism. 

b. The evil: excites angry passions, sacrifices human life, de- 
stroys property, devastates nature, entails national, social, and 
domestic misery. 

c. Summing up : probably must be acknowledged as an evil; but 
thus far a necessary evil, and with many attendant benefits — 
hope that the world's disputes may hereafter be settled with- 
out the sword. 

4. Rain — its Uses : 

a. Feelings with which we are apt to regard a rainy day— disap- 
pointment and irritation from interruption of pleasure. 

&. Consider to what drought leads when long continued— effects 
on vegetation— on cattle— illustration of these points— effects 
on man's comfort thereby. 

c. But now rain comes— changed aspect of the fields — cattle and 
man relieved — the air freshened — the walk enlivened — in short, 
languishing nature revived. 

d. Against so palpable good we must not place what is at best to 
us a little disappointment— with patience in hope of increased 
pleasure another clay— the rainy day not always, as common 
language would lead us to think, a lad day. 

5. On Foreign Thayel: 

a. Solitude often produces selfishness— men's sympathies expand 
the more, the more they mix with their fellows— the men of a 
small circle and limited experience are narrowest and most 
bigoted in their views. 

b. Men who know no country but their own are apt to be filled 
with national prejudices, to underrate other countries — travel 
removes those prejudices, expands the intellect, increases our 
knowledge of men and things, shows us nature and art under dif- 
ferent circumstances, makes us less vain, and more charitable. 



110 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

C. On the Advantages of a Good Education: 

a. Meaning of "education" in its limited or school sense — its 
more enlarged meaning: the development of all our faculties, 
and the formation of character. 

b. Fortune may be left to us by our parents or relatives; but 
education must be acquired by ourselves, or we must lack it 
forever. Fortune may be acquired at an advanced timje of life — 
if education is neglected in youth, almost impossible to make 
it up. 

c. Education to be gained by work— anecdote : when Dionysius, 
the tyrant of Syracuse, wanted Archimedes to instruct him in 
geometry by an easier method than common, the philosopher 
replied, "I know of no royal road to geometry." 

d. It is to education that men owe the superiority they have over 
their fellow-creatures, more than to any advantages of nature. 
Many persons would have risen high, had they been educated. 
Fine illustration from Gray's Elegy: 

But knowledge to their eyes her ample page, 
Rich with the spoils of time did ne'er unroll : 

Chill penury repress'd their noble rage, 
And froze the genial current of the soul. 

Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 
The dark unfathomed caves of oceau bear : 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

7. A Summer Morning: 

a. Pleasure of being alone with nature — in early morning the 
bustle of the day's work does not yet distract us — only so much 
of human activity as to lead to meditation instead of disturb- 
ing it. 

b. Beauty of the scene on a fine summer morning — clear atmos- 
phere—familiar scenes appear in a new light— dewy fragrance 
of flowers and leaves — music of birds — (name some in illustra- 
tion). 

c. Ample reason for the common belief that it is good to be up 
betimes— morning air fresh and exhilarating— after night's re- 
pose the temper is calm and unruffled — disposed for cheerful 
contemplation — a wholesome introduction to the work of the 
day. 

d. Such pleasure maybe commended with all confidence— its ex- 
perience not attended with loss or regret— on the contrary, 
leaves no impression but such as arc healthful and gratifying. 

8. On Historical Reading: 

a. Increases the sphere of our knowledge. 

b. Expands our sympathies. 



ESSAYS. Ill 

c. Presents noble pictures of patriotism and courage. 

d. A source of gratification and amusement. 

e. Enables us to draw lessons from the past applicable to the 
present. 

/. Gives us models for personal imitation, and leads to the for- 
mation of sound views of life and conduct. 

9. On Method ln Daily Life: 

a. Enables us to do more work, and better work in less time. 

b. The proper division of time will do for the individual what the 
division of labor does for the community. 

c. Much time is wasted in thinking what we are to do next ; 
much by not taking our duties in a proper succession (illus- 
tration), as if a letter-carrier were to take out his letters in a 
general heap, and deliver them just as the addresses turned up. 

d. Show how organization is applicable to various occupations 
and pursuits ; to daily business ; to the weekly round of du- 
ties ; to amusements ; to traveling ; to the associations of men 
for all purposes, as churches, insurance companies, railroads, 
public libraries, etc. 

e. The greater comfort and happiness arising from doing work 
methodically, thoroughly, and well. 



Miscellaneous Subjects for Essays. 



1. 


Recollections of Early Child- 


28. 


Public Opinion. 




hood. 


20. 


A good Temper. 


2. 


Advantages of Life Insurance. 


80. 


Taste. 


3! 


Influence of Climate on People. 


31. 


Sublimity. 


4. 


Wisdom of God. 


-52. 


Power of Association. 


5. 


Making the best of Things. 


:£ 


Love of Fame. 


0. 


God in Nature. 


84. 


Conscience. 


7. 


God in History. 


85. 


Intemperance. 


8. 


Value of Time. 


30. 


Revenge. 


9. 


Ravages of Time. 


37. 


True Greatness. 


10. 


Regularity of Nature. 


38. 


Truth. 


11. 


Economy of Nature. 


80. 


Genius. 


12. 


History. 


40. 


Curiosity. 


13. 


Biography. 


41. 


Advantages of a Classical Edu- 


14. 


Industry. 




cation. 


15. 


Pride. 


42. 


Advantages of a well culti- 


16. 


Prejudice. 




vated Mind. 


17. 


Importance of Geology. 


43. 


Power of Application. 


18. 


Importance of Mathematics. 


44. 


Evanescence of Pleasure. 


19. 


Pleasures of Memory. 


45. 


Heroism. 


20. 


Pleasures of Conversation. 


40. 


The Study of the Bible. 


21. 


Colonization. 


47. 


The Imagination. 


22 


Flattery. 


48. 


Sensibility. 


20 


Remorse. 


40. 


Sources of our Country's Pros 


24^ 


Economy. 




perity. 


25 


Power of Custom. 


50. 


Origin "and Progress of Lan- 


2(>! 


Importance of Trifles. 




guage. 


27. 


Decision of Character. 


51. 


Character of the Romans. 



112 



SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 



53. 
53. 

54. 
55. 
56. 
57. 
58. 
59. 
60. 
61. 
62. 
63. 

64. 

65. 
66. 
67. 
68. 
69. 
70. 
71. 
72. 
73. 



Greek Literature. 

Uses of Adversity. 

Qualifications of a General. 

Qualifications of a Historian. 

Power of Fashion. 

Society. 

Value of Character. 

Value of Common Qualities. 

On the Choice of a Profession. 

True Happiness. 

Extravagance. 

Insufficiency of Genius with- 
out Learning*. 

Modesty. 

Morality of Christianity. 

National Character. 

The Domestic Virtues. 

Knowledge of the World. 

Progress of the Fine Arts. 

Thc~Study of Nature. 

On Tragedy. 

On Comedy. 

France viewed as a Commer- 
cial Country. 

The Advantages to be derived 
from a proper method of 
Reading. 

On the Progress of Science 
within the'Nineteenth Cen- 
tury. 

Advantages conferred on So- 
ciety by Literary Men. 

Party Spirit. 

The Elocmcnce of the An- 
cients. 

Dangers of Railroad Monop- 
oly. 



80. Style. 

81. Tlie Adaptation of External 

Nature to the Moral Con- 
stitution of Man. 

82. The Necessity of subduing 

the Passions. 

83. Division of Labor. 

84. The Regulation of the Affec- 

tions. 

85. The Mythology of the Hin- 

doos. 
8(3. The Literature of the Reign 
of Queen Anne. 

87. Female Suffrage. 

88. The Cultivation of the Mem- 

ory. 

89. The Pleasures of Anticipation. 

90. National Amusements. 

91. The Folly of Pretension. 

92. Allegorical Instruction. 

93. National Costumes. 

94. Present Condition and Fu- 

ture Prospects of Austra- 
lia. 

95. The Benefits conferred upon 

History by Antiquarian Re- 
searches. 
90. Mythology of the Greeks and 
Romans. 

97. The Superstitions of the An- 

cient Egyptians. 

98. The Saxon Race and its Influ- 

ences. 

99. The Spirit of Controversy. 
100. The Arctic Expeditions, and 

their Influence upon Sci- 
ence. 



EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 



Al'leg/ory. A narrative representing objects and events that are in- 
tended to be symbolical of otber objects and events having a moral 
or spiritual character. The Pilgrim's Progress, by John Bunyan, is 
a well-known example. In it the spiritual life or progress of the 
Christian is represented in detail by the story of a pilgrim on a jour- 
ney to a distant country, which he reaches after many struggles and 
difficulties. Other examples: Spenser's Fairy Queen, Thomson's 
Castle of Indolence, Swift's Tale of a Tab, and Travels of Gulliver. 

Alliteration. The device of beginning successive words with the 
same initial letter ; as, 

Up the high hill he heaved a huge round stone.— PorE. 

It formed the distinctive mark of the oldest English poetry. It is 
used occasionally for effect by modern authors ; but its frequent in- 
troduction savors of affectation. 

Ambiguity. A double meaning involved in the construction of a 
sentence; as, "John promised his father never to abandon his 
friends." It is impossible to decide idiose friends are meant, wheth- 
er those of John or of his father. 

Analogy. A similarity of relation sldjj — not a direct resemblance of 
things themselves, but of the relations they hold to some third 
thing. Thus there is an analogy between an egg and a seed. Not 
that the two things are alike ; but there is a similarity between the 
relation which an egg bears to the parent bird and to her future 
nestling, and the relation which a seed bears to the old and to the 
young plant, and this resemblance is an analogy. 

Anticlimax. A climax is the arranging of the terms or particulars 
of a sentence or other portions of discourse, so as to rise in strength 
to the last. An anticlimax is a sentence in which the ideas sud- 
denly become less dignified at the close. . Thus, Hawthorne speaks 
of a custom which he intended to ridicule as " befitting the Chris- 
tian, the good citizen, and the horticidturisV 

Antithesis. (Greek anti, against, and tithemi, to place.) A contrast 
of words or ideas in successive clauses or sentences. Thus: "In 
the plant the clock is wound up, in the animal it runs down. In 
the plant the atoms are separated, in the animal they recombine." 
Used judiciously, antithesis is a grent beauty, but it may be carried 
too far. Macaulay has been blamed for an excessive use of this 
form of expression. 



114 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

Apos' tro-phe. A figure of language, in which the speaker turns aside 
from the natural course of his ideas to address the absent or the 
dead, as if they were preseut. Thus : 

"Glorious Washington, break the long silence of that votive canvas: 
speak, speak, marble lips ; teach us the love of liberty protected by law."— 
Edwaed Everett. 

Bur-lesquc'. Consists in using high-sounding epithets and an ap- 
parently dignified style to describe unworthy or unimportant ob- 
jects. Thus: 

Then flashed the lurid lightning from her eyes, 

And screams of horror rend the affrighted skies ; 

Not louder shrieks to pitying Heaven are cast. 

When husbands and wheu lap-dogs breathe their last.— Pops. 

Circumlocution. A roundabout way of expressing a simple idea. 
It may be resorted to with an object, as in what is called "Euphe- 
mism," or the mode of softening a harsh or too direct and literal 
expression. But unless justified in this way, circumlocution is to 
be avoided as enfeebling one's style. 

Climax (Greek klimax, a ladder or staircase) consists in so arran- 
ging the words of a series, or the parts of a sentence, that the least 
impressive shall stand first, and the successive words or parts grow 
in strength. Thus : 

•'It is an outrage to bind a Roman citizen ; to scourge him is an atrocious 
crime; to put him to death is almost a parricide ; but to crucify him— what 
shall I call it?"— Ciceeo. 

Comparison. An extended or elaborate simile. Not every state- 
ment of mere resemblance constitutes a simile. When objects are 
compared in respect of quantity or degree, or to see how they differ, 
there is no simile. Thus, if we should say that " Emily is like her 
mother," this would be no comparison. It is only when the object 
of the comparison is to trace internal resemblance that a comparison 
becomes a figure of similitude. Thus : 

" Trade, like a restive horse, is not easily managed : where one is carried 
to the end of a successful journey, many are thrown off by the way." 

Diction. The element of style that has reference to the words em- 
ployed by a writer or speaker. 

Epigram. A short, pointed, or witty saying, the true sense of which 
is different from that which appears on the surface. It involves :i 
hidden meaning which contradicts that which is expressed, and the 
force of Epigram lies in the pleasant surprise attendant upon the 
perception of the real meaning. It is an epigram to say that " soli- 
tude sometimes is best society." Taken literally, this is an ab- 
surdity; yet it is a forcible way of saying that the pleasures of soli- 
tude are greater than those derived from ungenial companionship. 
In a loose way, Epigram is applied to any witty, pointed saying. 

Eu'phemism. An allowable circumlocution used to soften a harsh 
or direct way of putting a thing. Thus: "Your statement is not 
quite consistent with truth " is a Euphemism for " You are telling 
a lie." 



EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 115 

Euphony. (Greek eu, and. phone = well-sounding.) Agreeable effect 
produced on the ear by the sounds of words — their sounds con- 
sidered independently of any meaning the words may have. 

Ezor'dium. The introductory part of an oration. Its object is to 
render the hearers well disposed, attentive, and open to persuasion. 

Fable. A fictitious story, in itself improbable, generally impossi- 
ble, but nevertheless conveying or illustrating some moral instruc- 
tion, or some opinion. It differs from an Allegory, first, in being 
improbable and necessarily fictitious; and, second, in conveying 
generally one simple moral lesson, without exhibiting numerous 
points of similarity as the Allegory does. The famous productions 
known as the Fables of Esop are the best illustration. 

Hcsameter. (Greek hex, sis, and matron, a measure.) Averse con- 
sisting of six feet or measures. In this species of verse are com- 
posed the Iliad of Homer and the JEneid of Virgil. The feet of 
classic verse were measured according to quantity, of English verse 
according to accent. The following are hexameter lines : 

"Strongly it | bears us a- 1 long on | swelling and | limitless | billows, 
Nothing be- j fore and | nothing be- | hind but the | sky and the | ocean." 

Humor. A quality easy to feel but hard to define, and of which the 
best realization will be obtained by reading the writings of such 
men as Cervantes (Bon Quixote), Sterne, Sydney Smith, Charles 
Lamb, Hood, Irving, and Holmes. It is not the same thing as 
"wit." 

Kyper'bo-le. An exaggeration of the literal truth (Greek hyperbole, 
overshooting), so as to make a statement more impressive. The 
following contains an example of hyperbole : 

"And there are also many other things which Jesus did, the which, if 
they should be written every one, I suppose that even the world itself could 
not contain the books that shoidd be written." — Bible. 

It is much used in poetry and in oratory; also in common conver- 
sation. But it should be used sparingly, for, like other spices, if ex- 
cessive, it becomes disagreeable. 

Innuendo. (Latin innuere, to give a nod.) A form of allusion, in 
which a thing, instead of being plainly stated, is suggested or im- 
plied merely. It is particularly effective in vituperation. The 
thing is said, and yet said so that the vituperated person can not 
lay hold of it in the way of refutation or retort. Fuller's saying on 
Camden the antiquarian is a witty innuendo: "He had a number 
of coins of the Roman emperors, and a good many more of the later 
English kings" [that is, he was rich]. 

Irony (Greek eiron, a dissembler) expresses the contrary of what 
is meant, there being something in the tone or manner to show the 
real drift of the speaker; as in Job's address to his friends: "No 
doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom will die with you." It 
professes belief in a statement for the purpose of casting ridicule 
upon it. It bestows praise in such a manner as to convey disap- 
probation. 

"And Brutus is an honorable man 1" 



116 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

Johnsonian Style. Writings in which long and sonorous terms 
and elaborately balanced periods abound. So called from the char- 
acter of the productions of Dr.Samuel Johnson, an English writer of 

the last century. Macaulay, criticising Johnson's style, says: "When 
he talked, he clothed his wit and his sense in forcible and natural 
expressions. As soon as he took his pen in hand to write for the 
public, his style became systematically vicious. All his books arc 
w r ritten in a learned language— in a language which nobody hears 
from his mother or his nurse — in a language in which nobody ever 
quarrels, or drives bargains, or makes love — in a language in which 
nobody ever thinks. It is clear that Johnson himself did not think 
in the dialect in which he wrote." 

Li'to-tes. Is precisely the reverse of hyperbole. It is a form of 
thought by which, in seeming to lessen, we actually increase the 
force of an expression. Thus when we say, " These are not the 
words of a child," we mean, "These are the words of a wise man." 
"I can not eulogize such a man," means, perhaps, "I despise him." 

Metaphor. One of the figures of speech— an implied comparison; 
whereas an expressed comparison is called a simile. Example : 
" Thy word is a lamp to my feet." Mixing metaphors is combining 
in one sentence two inconsistent metaphors on the same subject. 

I bridle in my struggling muse with pain, 

That longs to launch into a nobler strain.— Awhson. 

Here Addison makes his muse first a steed to be " bridled in," then 
a ship to be "launched." 

Mcton'ymy. A figure of speech in which one word is used for an- 
other when the things denoted have some other relation than that 
of resemblance. The principal kinds of metonymy are set forth in 
part iv., chapter iii., p. 80. 

Obsolete Words. Such as no longer belong to the current speech. 
They are sometimes effective in poetry, but should not be used in 
ordinary prose composition. Their employment is as much out of 
place as would be the wearing the knee-breeches and powdered 
wigs of our ancestors. "I wot that he gave his artillery unto the 
knave," meant, in the 17th century, "I knew that he gave his bow 
and arrows to the attendant;" but we should not know that it 
meant that without the use of a glossary. 

Onomatopoc ' ia. The name given to that figure of speech in which 
the very sound of the word is an imitation of the meaning of the 
word — "the sound an echo of the sense." 

Like our harsh, northern vhistlina, grunting auttural, 

Which we're obliged to hiss, and sjiit, and sputter all.— Byron. 

Par'ody. A composition similar in sound to another, and yet con- 
veying an entirely different meaning. It is always designed to have 
a ludicrous effect! 

He thought, as he hollowed his narrow bed, 

And punched up his meagre pillow, 
How the foe and the stranger should tread o'er his head, 

As he sped on his way o'er the billow. 



EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 117 

This verse is a parody of a stanza, in the "Burial of Sir John Moore," 
beginning 

" We thought, as we hollowed his narrow bed," etc. 

Paronomasia. The high-flown name for a. pun. 

Pa'thos. (Greek pathos, feeling.) That which touches the tender 
chord in our nature — a sympathetic pain not wholly without pleas- 
ure. Dickens's description of the death of Little Nell, in the " Old 
Curiosity Shop," is a fine instance. The Bible also abounds in pa- 
thos. But if not managed with great skill, this quality is likely to 
degenerate into mawkishness and sentimentality. 

Period. A sentence in which the complete sense is suspended until 
the close. It is contrasted with the loose sentence in which the 
principal predicate is followed by explanatory phrases or clauses, 
which may be omitted and still leave the sentence a complete sen- 
tence. 

Peroration. The conclusion of an oration. 

Personification. That figure of language by which the lower ani- 
mals and inanimate objects are represented as endowed with the 
powers of human beings, especially with speech; as, "Jam glad," 
answered the Bee, " to hear you grant, at least, that J came honestly 
by my wings and my voice." 

Perspicuity. (Latin per and specio, that which may be seen through, 
transparent.) The quality of style by which a writer's meaning is 
rendered clear and intelligible. It is opposed to obscurity, ambi- 
guity, etc., and is the first requisite of good writing. 

Pleonasm. An allowable redundancy. "I cried to the Lord with 
my voice.'''' The phrase " with my voice'''' is redundant, since it is im- 
plied in the verb cried; but such redundancies are allowable when 
deep feeling is expressed. 

Pun (etymology doubtful; but said to be connected with Anglo- 
Saxon punian, to bruise, or with the word point) has been charac- 
teristically defined in the following rhyming way : 

"A pun's a word that's played upon, 
And has a double sense ; 
But when I say a double sense, 
I don't mean double cente. 
As thus : A bat about a room 
Not long ago I knew 
To fly; he caught a fly, and then 
Flew up the chimney flue." 

Rhyme. The correspondence of one verse with another in final 
sound. 

Rhythm. In verse, the recurrence of stress, or accent, at regular in- 
tervals ; in prose at variable intervals. 

Rhetoric. The science and art of expressing thought and feeling by 
language in the best possible manner. The Greek Aristotle, the 



118 SCHOOL COMPOSITION. 

oldest writer on the subject, defines it as "the faculty of perceiv- 
ing all the possible means of persuasion on every subject." 

Sarcasm. A keen, reproachful, but at the same time witty expres- 
sion. It is derived from a Greek word that means, literally, to tear 
the flesh; and a bitter speaker may be said to flay his opponent. 
Thus, one "Ward, a flippant Parliamentary orator who used to write 
out and commit' to memory bombastic speeches, having severely 
criticised Rogers's poem entitled " Italy," the poet took his revenge 
in writing these few lines, which were soon widely quoted : 

" Ward has no heart, they say ; but I deny it : 
lie has a heart, and gets his sjweches by it /" 

Satire. A production in which follies and vices are ridiculed, some- 
times humorously and with good-nature, sometimes severely and 
indignantly, often employing the bitterest sarcasm. 

Sim'i-le. A figure of language in which one thing is expressly com- 
pared to another, which it resembles in some properties. The com- 
parison is introduced by the words like or as: 

" Like a tempest down the ridges 
Swept the hurricane of steel." 

" We all do fade as the leaf." 

Sol ccism. A fault of syntax— a grammatical blunder. 

Sonnet. A poem of fourteen lines of ten syllables, with a peculiar 
arrangement of the rhymes, not, however, always strictly observed. 

Style. The mode of expression which one habitually adopts in giv- 
ing utterance to his thoughts. When we speak of Dickens's style, 
Addison's style, Victor Hugo's style, we have a notion of a certain 
manner of clothing thought in words, and this peculiarity is style. 
The term comes from the Latin stylus, an instrument used by "the 
ancients in writing on tablets covered with wax; and the modern 
meaning is a transference of sense Irom the instrument to the way 
of using it— just as we say that a person " wields a forcible pen." 

Synonyms. Words which agree in their general meaning, but differ 
in their special applications. Thus, discovery and invention have In 
common the idea of presenting for the first time; but " discovery" 
is applied to making known what previously existed; "inven- 
tion," to constructing what did not previously exist 

Taste. Employed with reference to Fine Art has two meanings : 1. 

The susceptibility to pleasure from works of art: a person devoid 
of this is said to'have no taste. 2. The kind of artistic excellence 
that gives the greatest amount of pleasure to cultivated minds: 
thus we may say that a poem displays " good taste," or a ne •• 
per article " a want of taste." 

Tantol'ogy. The repetition of the same thought in different woi 

Tropes. (Greek trope", turning.) Single words used figuratively, or 

not in their literal sense. The figures called synecdoche, metony- 
my, and metaphor are tropes. 



EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 119 

Wit. A combination of ideas, in the first place, unexpected; second- 
ly, ingenious; and thirdly, consisting in a play upon words. (1.) As 
regards being unexpected — this is implied in the terms "flash of 
wit," "stroke of wit," "sally of wit," etc. (2.) The unexpected com- 
bination must display ingenuity or skill, such as gives something to 
admire. (3.) It is a mode of ingenuity consisting in a play upon 
words (French jeu de mot). The Epigram is the purest form of wit. 
Next are Innuendo and Irony, double meaning, etc., down to, and 
sometimes including the pun. 



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